Good Wine Guide

Book Giveaway - The Quarter-Acre Farm: How I Kept the Patio, Lost the Lawn, and Fed My Family for a Year

2011-08-04T16:36:00.000-07:00

This month we’re giving away The Quarter-Acre Farm book giveaway to ONE lucky PermacultureMediaBlog Reader!

The Quarter-Acre Farm: How I Kept the Patio, Lost the Lawn, and Fed My Family for a Year (ebook preview here)

When Spring Warren told her husband and two teenage boys that she wanted to grow 75 percent of all the food they consumed for one year—and that she wanted to do it in their yard—they told her she was crazy.

She did it anyway.

Full of tips and recipes to help anyone interested in growing and preparing at least a small part of their diet at home, The Quarter-Acre Farm is a warm, witty tale about family, food, and the incredible gratification that accompanies self-sufficiency.

Here are a few ways to enter:

http://permaculture-media-download.blogspot.com/2011/08/book-giveaway-quarter-acre-farm.html

Capturing heat: Five earth-friendly cooking technologies and how to build them

2011-05-28T00:59:00.000-07:00

By Dean Still and Jim Kness

Aprovecho Research Center

Illustrations by Loki Quinnangeles, Cathy White, Shon Lenzo, Lynn Forbes, Amelia Ettinger

Contents:

Introduction to Psychology with Professor Paul Bloom - Open Yale Courses (20 free video online lectures + transcripts)

2011-05-23T03:36:00.000-07:00

About the Course

What do your dreams mean? Do men and women differ in the nature and intensity of their sexual desires? Can apes learn sign language? Why can’t we tickle ourselves? This course tries to answer these questions and many others, providing a comprehensive overview of the scientific study of thought and behavior. It explores topics such as perception, communication, learning, memory, decision-making, religion, persuasion, love, lust, hunger, art, fiction, and dreams. We will look at how these aspects of the mind develop in children, how they differ across people, how they are wired-up in the brain, and how they break down due to illness and injury.

About Professor Paul Bloom

Paul Bloom is Professor of Psychology at Yale University. He was born in Montreal, Canada, was an undergraduate at McGill University, and did his doctoral work at MIT. He has published in scientific journals such as Nature and Science, and in popular outlets such as The New York Times and The Atlantic Monthly. He is the co-editor of Behavioral and Brain Sciences, and the author of two books: How Children Learn the Meanings of Words and Descartes' Baby: How the Science of Child Development Explains What Makes Us Human. His research explores children's understanding of art, religion, and morality.

Watch free online lectures - Introduction to Psychology with Professor Paul Bloom:

Click session titles below to access audio, video, and course materials.

1. Introduction
2. Foundations: This Is Your Brain
3. Foundations: Freud
4. Foundations: Skinner
5. What Is It Like to Be a Baby: The Development of Thought
6. How Do We Communicate?: Language in the Brain, Mouth and the Hands
7. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Language (cont.); Vision and Memory
8. Conscious of the Present; Conscious of the Past: Vision and Memory (cont.)
9. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Love (Guest Lecture by Professor Peter Salovey)
10. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Evolution and Rationality
11. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part I
12. Evolution, Emotion, and Reason: Emotions, Part II
13. Why Are People Different?: Differences
14. What Motivates Us: Sex
15. A Person in the World of People: Morality
16. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part I
17. A Person in the World of People: Self and Other, Part II; Some Mysteries: Sleep, Dreams, and Laughter
18. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part I (Guest Lecture by Professor Susan Nolen-Hoeksema)
19. What Happens When Things Go Wrong: Mental Illness, Part II
20. The Good Life: Happiness

Syrah/Shiraz

2011-05-10T02:46:00.000-07:00

Syrah or Shiraz is a dark-skinned grape grown throughout the world and used primarily to produce powerful red wines. Whether sold as Syrah or Shiraz, these wines enjoy great popularity.
Syrah is used as a varietal and is also blended. Following several years of strong planting, Syrah was estimated in 2004 to be the world's 7th most grown grape at 142,600 hectares (352,000 acres).^[1]

DNA profiling in 1999 found Syrah to be the offspring of two obscure grapes from southeastern France, Dureza and Mondeuse Blanche.^[2] It should not be confused with Petite Sirah, a synonym for Durif, a cross of Syrah with Peloursin dating from 1880.

Syrah has a long documented history in the Rhône region of Southeastern France, and it was not known if it had originated in that region. In 1998, a study conducted by Carole Meredith's research group in the Department of Viticulture and Enology at University of California, Davis used DNA typing and extensive grape reference material from the viticultural research station in Montpellier, France to conclude that Syrah was the offspring of the grape varieties Dureza (father) and Mondeuse Blanche (mother).^[2]^[3]^[4]^[5]^[6]

Dureza is a dark-skinned grape variety from the Ardèche region in France that has all but disappeared from the vineyards, and the preservation of such varieties is a speciality of Montpellier. Mondeuse Blanche is a white grape variety cultivated in the Savoy region, and is still found in very small amounts in that region's vineyards today. Both varieties are somewhat obscure today and have never achieved anything near Syrah's fame or popularity, and there is no record of them ever having been cultivated at long distances from their present home. Thus, both Syrah's parents come from a limited area in southeastern France, very close to northern Rhône. Based on these findings, the researchers have concluded that Syrah originated from northern Rhône.^[2]^[6]

The DNA typing leaves no room for doubt in this matter, and the numerous other hypotheses of the grape's origin which have been forwarded during the years all completely lack support in form of documentary evidence or ampelographic investigations, be it by methods of classical botany or DNA. Instead, they seem to have been based primarily or solely on the name or synonyms of the variety. Because of varying orthography for grape names, especially for old varieties, this is in general very thin evidence. Despite this, origins such as Syracuse or the Iranian city of Shiraz have been proposed.^[6]

The parentage information does however not reveal how old the grape variety is, i.e., when the pollination of a Mondeuse Blanche vine by Dureza took place, leading to the original Syrah seed plant. In the year AD 77, Pliny the Elder wrote in his Naturalis Historia about the wines of Vienne (which today would be called Côte-Rôtie), where the Allobroges made famous and prized wine from a dark-skinned grape variety that had not existed some 50 years earlier, in Virgil's age.^[7] Pliny called the vines of this wine Allobrogica, and it has been speculated that it could be today's Syrah. However, the description of the wine would also fit, for example, Dureza^[2] and Pliny's observation that the vines of Allobrogica was resistant to cold is not entirely consistent with Syrah.^[7]

The name Shiraz

It is called Syrah in its country of origin, France, as well as in the rest of Europe, Argentina, Chile, New Zealand, Uruguay and most of the United States. The name Shiraz became popular for this grape variety in Australia, where it has long been established as the most grown dark-skinned variety. In Australia it was also commonly called Hermitage up to the late 1980s, but since that name is also a French Protected designation of origin, this naming practice caused a problem in some export markets and was dropped. The name Shiraz for this grape variety is also commonly used in South Africa and Canada.

The grape is also known under many other synonyms that are used in various parts of the world including Antourenein Noir, Balsamina, Candive, Entournerein, Hignin Noir, Marsanne Noir, Schiras, Sirac, Syra, Syrac, Serine, and Sereine.^[8]
Legends of Syrah's origins come from one of its synonyms - Shiraz.^[9] Because a city in Iran called Shiraz produced the well-known Shirazi wine,^[10] legends claim that the Syrah grape originated in Shiraz and then was brought to Rhône. This association suggests that "Syrah" is a local French synonym and "Shiraz" is the proper name.

There are at least two significantly different versions of the myth, giving different accounts of how the variety is supposed to have been brought from Shiraz to Rhône and differing up to 1,800 years in dating this event. In one version, the Phocaeans should have brought Syrah/Shiraz to their colony around Marseilles (then known as Massilia), which was founded around 600 BC. The grape should then later have made its way to northern Rhône, which was never colonized by the Phocaeans. No documentary evidence exists to back up this legend, and it also requires that the variety later has vanished from the Marseilles region without leaving any trace.^[7]

In another version, the person who brought the variety to Rhône is even named, being the crusader Gaspard de Stérimberg, who is supposed to have built the chapel at Hermitage.^[7] Even before the advent of DNA typing of grapes, there were several problems with this legend. First, no ampelographic investigations of the grapes from Shiraz seem to have been made. Second, it is documented that the famous Shirazi wine was white,^[10] ruling out the use of dark-skinned grapes such as Syrah, and no known descriptions of this wine's taste and character indicate any similarity whatsoever with red wines from the Rhône. Third, it is highly doubtful if any crusader would have journeyed as far east as Persia, since the crusades were focused on the Holy Land.

The legend connecting Syrah with the city of Shiraz in Iran may, however, be of French origin. James Busby wrote in Journal of a recent visit to the principal vineyards of Spain and France that the 1826 book Œnologie Française "stated that, according to the tradition of the neighbourhood, the plant [Scyras] was originally brought from Shiraz in Persia, by one of the hermits of the mountain".^[11]

Since the name Shiraz has been used primarily in Australia in modern time, while the earliest Australian documents use the spelling "Scyras", it has been speculated (among others by Jancis Robinson^[8]) that the name Shiraz is in fact a so-called "strinization" of Syrah's name via Scyras.

However, while the names Shiraz and Hermitage gradually seem to have replaced Scyras in Australia from the mid-19th century, the spelling Shiraz has also been documented in British sources back to at least the 1830s.^[11]^[12]^[13] So, while the name or spelling Shiraz may be an effect of the English language on a French name, there is no evidence that it actually originated in Australia, although it was definitely the Australian usage and the Australian wines that made the use of this name popular.

Other legends

Another legend of the grape variety's origin, based on the name Syrah, is that it was brought from Syracuse by the legions of Roman Emperor Probus sometime after AD 280. This legend also lacks documentary evidence and is inconsistent with ampelographic findings.^[7]

Rise to fame

The wines that made Syrah famous were those from Hermitage, the hill above the town Tain-l'Hermitage in northern Rhône where there is an hermitage (chapel) on the top, and where de Stérimberg is supposed to have settled as a hermit after his crusades. Hermitage wines have for centuries had a reputation for being powerful and excellent. While Hermitage was quite famous in the 18th and 19th centuries, and attracted interest from foreign oenophiles such as Bordeaux enthusiast Thomas Jefferson, it lost ground and foreign attention in the first half of the 20th century.^[14]

In the 18th and the first half of the 19th centuries, most Hermitage wine that left France did so as a blending component in Bordeaux wines. In an era when "clarets" were less powerful than today, and before appellation rules, red wines from warmer regions would be used for improvement (or adulteration, depending on the point of view) of Bordeaux wines. While Spanish and Algerian wines are also known to have been used for this purpose, top Bordeaux châteaux would use Hermitage to improve their wines, especially in weaker vintages.^[5]^[15]

Arrival in Australia

In 1831, the Scotsman James Busby, often called "the Father of Australian viticulture", made a trip back to Europe to collect cuttings from vines (primarily from France and Spain) for introduction to Australia.^[16] One of the varieties collected by him was Syrah, although Busby used the two spellings "Scyras" and "Ciras". The cuttings were planted in the Sydney Botanical Gardens, and in Hunter Valley, and in 1839 brought from Sydney to South Australia.^[17] By the 1860s, Syrah was established as an important variety in Australia.

Modern history

Syrah continues to be the main grape of the Northern Rhône and is associated with classic wines such as Hermitage, Cornas and Côte-Rôtie. In the Southern Rhône it is used as a blending grape in such wines as Châteauneuf-du-Pape, Gigondas and Côtes du Rhône, where Grenache usually makes up the bulk of the blend. Although its best incarnations will age for decades, less-extracted styles may be enjoyed young for their lively red and blueberry characters and smooth tannin structure. Syrah has been widely used as a blending grape in the red wines of many countries due to its fleshy fruit mid-palate, balancing the weaknesses of other varieties and resulting in a "complete" wine.

From the 1970s and even more from the 1990s, Syrah has enjoyed increased popularity, and plantings of the variety has expanded significantly in both old and new locations.^[6] In the early 2000s, it broke into the top 10 of varieties planted worldwide for the first time.^[1]

Syrah wines

A glass of California Syrah.

Syrah is widely used to make a dry red table wine, which can be both varietal or blended. Four main uses can be distinguished:

Varietal Syrah or Shiraz. Of the better-known wines, this is the style of Hermitage in northern Rhône or Australian Shiraz.
Syrah blended with a small amount of Viognier. This is the traditional style of Côte-Rôtie in northern Rhône.
Syrah as a roughly equal blending component for Cabernet Sauvignon. In modern times, this blend originated in Australia, so it is often known as Shiraz-Cabernet.
Syrah as a minor blending component for Grenache and Mourvèdre. This is the traditional style of Châteauneuf-du-Pape of southern Rhône, and this blend is often referred to as GSM in Australia.

Smaller amounts of Syrah are also used in the production of other wine styles, such as rosé wine, fortified wine in Port wine style, and sparkling red wine.^[18] While Australian sparkling Shiraz traditionally have had some sweetness, a number of Australian winemakers also make a full-bodied sparkling dry Shiraz, that contains the complexity and sometimes earthy notes that are normally found in still wine.^[19]

Due to their concentrated flavours and high tannin content, many premium Syrah wines are at their best after some considerable bottle aging. In exceptional cases, this may be 15 years or longer.
Syrah has one of the highest recommended wine serving temperatures at 65 °F (18 °C).^[20]

Taste and flavours

Wines made from Syrah are often powerfully flavoured and full-bodied. The variety produces wines with a wide range of flavor notes, depending on the climate and soils where it is grown, as well as other viticultural practices chosen. Aroma characters can range from violets to berries (usually dark as opposed to red), chocolate, espresso and black pepper. No one aroma can be called "typical" though blackberry and pepper are often noticed. With time in the bottle these "primary" notes are moderated and then supplemented with earthy or savory "tertiary" notes such as leather and truffle. "Secondary" flavor and aroma notes are those associated with several things, generally winemakers' practices (such as oak barrel and yeast regimes).

Syrah or Shiraz on labels

The Syrah-dominated appellations (AOCs) of northern Rhône have, like most other French appellations and regions, no tradition of varietal labelling of their wines. Indeed, such practices are generally disallowed under AOC rules, and only the AOC name (such as Cote-Rotie, Crozes-Hermitage or Hermitage) appears on the label. Varietal labelling of Syrah/Shiraz wines is therefore a practice which has emerged in the New World, and primarily in Australia.

To confuse matters, in northern Rhône, different clones of genuine Syrah are referred to as Petite Syrah (small Syrah) or Gros Syrah (large Syrah) depending on the size of their berries, with Petite Syrah being considered the superior version, giving wines higher in phenolics.^[6]

As a general rule, most Australian and South African wines are labelled Shiraz, and most European wines (from such regions where varietal labelling is practiced) are labelled Syrah. In other countries, practices vary and winemakers (or wine marketers) sometimes choose either Syrah or Shiraz to signify a stylistic difference in the wine they have made. "Syrah"-labelled wines are sometimes thought to be more similar to classic Northern Rhône reds; presumably more elegant, tannic, smoke-flavoured and restrained with respect to their fruit component. "Shiraz"-labelled wines, on the other hand, would then be more similar to archetypical Australian or other New World examples; presumably made from riper berries, more fruit-driven, higher in alcohol, less obviously tannic, peppery rather than smokey, usually more easily approached when young, and possibly slightly sweetish in impression. It must however be realized that this rule of thumb is unevenly applied.^[21]

Syrah in different countries

Syrah is a variety that during the last few decades has been imported for cultivation in several countries. It is primarily grown in warmer regions. Worldwide plantations of Syrah have increased considerably in the late 1990s and early 2000s, and both Syrah-labelled and Shiraz-labelled wines are on the increase.^[6]

It is grown in many wine producing regions around the world, with concentrations in Australia, The Rhone Valley in France, and the US. It is often used as a blending grape in Spain and Italy as well. It is also planted in Portugal, which favor making varietal Syrah wine, and not only blending with other types.

France

Syrah, as it is known in France, is grown throughout the Rhône valley. The wines that are made from it vary greatly, even over small changes in the vines locations. The differences in the soil quality as well as the changes in the slope of the terrain tend to produce different styles of wine. Ranging from the mineral and tannic nature of Hermitage, to fruity and perfumed in the case of Côte-Rôtie.^[21]
Syrah is also a key component to many blends. It may be used to add structure and color to Grenache in southern Rhône blends, including Côtes-du-Rhône and Châteauneuf-du-Pape.^[22] Syrah is also the only red grape used in the wines of the northern Rhône.^[23]

In 1968, there existed only 2,700 hectares (6,700 acres) of Syrah vineyards in France, primarily in the traditional appellations of northern Rhône, which at that time had not received much attention in the wine world for several decades, and the vineyards of which were not planted to full capacity. After the wines of northern Rhône were "rediscovered" by wine writers in the 1970s, plantings expanded considerably. This trend received an extra boost in the 1980s and 1990s, when influential wine writer Robert M. Parker, Jr. started to award very high scores, up to the "perfect" score of 100 points, to wines of some Rhône producers. The popularity of Australian Shiraz on the export market may also have played a role. 1988, total French plantings stood at 27,000 hectares (67,000 acres), and the 1999 viticultural survey found 50,700 hectares (125,000 acres) of Syrah vineyards. France thus has the world's largest plantations of Syrah.^[6]

While previously unused parts of the northern Rhône vineyards have been planted with Syrah as part of the expansion, the major part of the new French Syrah plantations are located in southern Rhône (which covers a much larger vineyard area than the northern part) and Languedoc-Roussillon.^[6]

While southern Rhône produces relatively few wines where Syrah is in the majority, the proportion of Syrah in the blended wines of this region has been on the rise. Languedoc-Roussillon uses Syrah to produce both Southern Rhône-like blends with Grenache, Australian-style blends with Cabernet Sauvignon, and varietal Syrah.

Australia

The Syrah grape was introduced into Australia in 1832 by James Busby, an immigrant who brought vine clippings from Europe with him, and it is almost invariably called Shiraz.^[5] Today it is Australia's most popular red grape, but has not always been in such favor; in the 1970s, white wine was so popular that growers were ripping out unprofitable Shiraz and Grenache vineyards, even those with very old vines. Many factors, including the success of brands like Lindemans (part of Foster's Group) and Jacob's Creek in the UK, as well as Rosemount in the US and UK, were responsible for a dramatic expansion of plantings during the 1980s and 1990s; a similar trajectory occurred in California. However, the biggest factor in this expansion during the 1990s was a federal government tax subsidy to those planting new vineyards.

In the 2005-2006 growing season, total Shiraz plantations in Australia stood at 41,115 hectares (101,600 acres), of which 39,087 hectares (96,590 acres) were old enough to be productive. These vines yielded a total of 422,430 tonnes of Shiraz grapes for wine production. Shiraz is thus the most planted variety in Australia.^[24] Australia thus has the world's second largest plantations of Syrah/Shiraz, after France.^[6]

Victorian regions include Heathcote, roughly 1.5 hours north of Melbourne. Cooler climate regions such as Western Australia's Margaret River produce Shiraz with marginally less alcohol content and often in a more traditional French style.

A well known example of the Shiraz grape in Australian viticulture is the Penfolds "Grange". This wine was created by winemaker Max Schubert in 1951, and has a reputation of aging well. The Penfolds Grange is predominantly Shiraz, but often includes a small quantity of Cabernet Sauvignon. It is usually a multi-regional blend of quality South Australian Shiraz, with the Barossa Valley playing an important role, and matured in new American Oak. Other well known Australian Shiraz wines include, the Henschke "Hill of Grace" and the Penfolds "RWT".

Recently, Australian Shiraz producers have started to add up to 4% Viognier to their Shiraz to add apricot tones to the wine's nose and palate. With such a small percentage added, the producer wasn't obliged to declare the blend on the label. In the past 5 years however, it's becoming increasingly fashionable to label the wine Shiraz Viognier as Viognier gains consumer acceptance in the market place. The practise of blending Viognier with Syrah has actually been common for years in the Northern Rhône Valley region of Cote-Rotie.^[25]

Shiraz is also the "S" in "GSM" (Grenache-Shiraz-Mourvèdre), which is common Australian designation for a Châteneuf-du-Pape-like blend.

South Africa

South African plantations have expanded significantly, from 1% of the vineyard area in 1995 to 9.7% in 2007^[26] making up a total area under cultivation of 9,856 hectares (24,350 acres). In South Africa, the variety is predominately known as Shiraz, but the designation Syrah is used for "Rhône-style" wines.^[9] Some see this variety as the "great hope" for South African wines.^[27]

United States

In the United States, wine produced from the grape is normally called by its French name, Syrah. However, in cases where winemakers choose to follow a New World style, similar to Penfolds Grange, they may choose to label their wines as Shiraz.^[21] Under American wine laws, either name may appear on the label. Syrah first appeared as a wine grape in California in the 1970s, where it was planted by a group of viticulturists who called themselves "Rhône rangers."^[22] Although most plantings of the grape are in California, there are increasing amounts of it being grown in Washington state.

California Syrahs, much like those in France, vary a great deal based on the climate and terroir that they inhabit. In exceptionally warm regions, such as parts of Napa, the wine is often blended with other Rhône varieties. Other appellations, primarily mountainous ones, tend to produce varietal-based wines that can stand on their own.^[28] Syrah was introduced into Washington state in 1985 by the Woodinville, Washington Columbia Winery. Expanding at a significant rate, it is used to produce single varietial wines as well as being blended with grapes such as Grenache, Cinsault, and Viognier.^[29]

Argentina

Syrah plantations in Argentina increased from less than 1,000 hectares (2,500 acres) in 1990 to 9,500 hectares (23,000 acres) in 2002.^[6] Syrah has occasionally been used as a blending component with Argentina's signature dark-skinned grape Malbec to provide an "Argentinian take" on the Australian Cabernet-Shiraz blend.

Chile

Around 2005, there were 2,500 hectares (6,200 acres) of Syrah in Chile.^[6]

Durif

Durif, or Petite Sirah, is a descendant of Syrah and Peloursin. It was propagated by and named after Dr. Francois Durif. Durif is a cross breed between the lesser known Peloursin and Syrah. Regions such as Rutherglen have achieved international regard for their Durif. This varietal is similar to Shiraz, but even more full bodied and tannic because of the smaller, thicker skinned grapes used.

References

^ ^a ^b Entry on "Vine varieties" in J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition, p. 746, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Carole Meredith: Origins of Syrah, p. 3-4 in: The Syrah Producers' Club 19 April 2004 - Syrah Worldwide Roma^{[dead link]}
^ Bowers, J.E., Siret, R., Meredith, C.P., This, P. and Boursiquot, J.-.M. 2000. "A single pair of parents proposed for a group of grapevine varieties in Northeast France", Acta Hort. (ISHS) 528:129-132 (Proceedings of the Seventh International Symposium on Grapevine Genetics and Breeding)
^ Vouillamoz, J.F. and Grando, M.S. 2006. "Genealogy of wine grape cultivars: 'Pinot' is related to 'Syrah'", Heredity 97:102–110 Quote: "Our data strongly confirmed the 'Syrah' parentage ('Dureza' x 'Mondeuse Blanche') established by Bowers et al."
^ ^a ^b ^c Oz Clark&Margaret Rand (2001). Oz Clarke's Encyclopedia of Grapes. Hardcourt,inc. pp. g 247. ISBN 0-15-100714-4.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k Entry on "Syrah" in J. Robinson (ed), "The Oxford Companion to Wine", Third Edition, p. 676-677, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e Entry on "Rhône" in J. Robinson (ed), "The Oxford Companion to Wine", Third Edition, p. 572-573, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ ^a ^b Jancis Robinson Vines, Grapes & Wine pg 90 Octopus Publishing 1986 ISBN 978-1-85732-999-5
^ ^a ^b Entry on "Shiraz" in J. Robinson (ed), "The Oxford Companion to Wine", Third Edition, p. 627, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ ^a ^b Entry on "Persia" in J. Robinson (ed), "The Oxford Companion to Wine", Third Edition, p. 512-513, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ ^a ^b Busby, James (1834). Journal of a recent visit to the principal vineyards of Spain and France. Smith, Elder. p. 108. http://books.google.no/books?id=zUyBFFr4wRoC&dq=1826%20scyras%20shiraz&hl=en&pg=PA108#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
^ Redding, Cyrus (July, 1834). "History of Wines". Gentleman's Magazine (F. Jefferies) 157: 7–11. http://books.google.no/books?id=y2OYNXvykVcC&dq=%22Gentleman's%20Magazine%22%20%22Hermitage%20is%20grown%20from%20the%20Shiraz%20grape%20of%20Persia%22&hl=en&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
^ Redding, Cyrus (1836). A history and description of modern wines. Whittaker & co.. p. 20. http://books.google.com/books?id=zyxEAAAAYAAJ&dq=%22Hermitage%20is%20now%20produced%20from%20the%20Scyras%2C%20or%20Shiraz%22%20%22Cyrus%20Redding%22&pg=PA20#v=onepage&q=&f=false.
^ Entry on "Hermitage" in J. Robinson (ed), "The Oxford Companion to Wine", Third Edition, p. 344, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ Entry on "Adulteraion and fraud" in J. Robinson (ed), "The Oxford Companion to Wine", Third Edition, p. 4-5, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ Entry on "Busby, James" in J. Robinson (ed), "The Oxford Companion to Wine", Third Edition, p. 116, Oxford University Press 2006, ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ James Halliday: Syrah in Australia since 1800, p. 10-14 in: The Syrah Producers' Club 19 April 2004 - Syrah Worldwide Roma
^ Karen MacNeil (2001). The Wine Bible. Workman Publishing Company. pp. g 786. ISBN 1-56305-434-5.
^ W. Blake Gray (2005-05-26). "RED FIZZ Australian-style red bubbly is a grown-up pleasure". San Francisco Chronicle. http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2005/05/26/WIGO9CSFBM1.DTL. Retrieved 2006-10-14.
^ Bonné, Jon, msnbc.com (September 21, 2005). The perfect temperature for wine
^ ^a ^b ^c Oz Clark&Margaret Rand (2001). Oz Clarke's Encyclopedia of Grapes. Hardcourt,inc. pp. g 250. ISBN 0-15-100714-4.
^ ^a ^b Jancis Robinson (2003). Jancis Robinson's Wine Course. Abbeville Press. pp. g 152. ISBN 0-7892-0883-0.
^ Jancis Robinson, ed (2005). Oxford Companion to Wine. Oxford University Press.. pp. g 572. ISBN 978-0-19-860990-2.
^ Australian Wine and Brandy Corporation: Areas of vines and grape production by variety - 2005-06, accessed on March 17, 2008
^ Jancis Robinson (2005-10-15). "Viognier - it's everywhere nowadays". http://www.jancisrobinson.com/articles/winenews051015.
^ South African Wine Industry Statistics 2008
^ Platter's South African Wines 2009, p66
^ Oz Clark&Margaret Rand (2001). Oz Clarke's Encyclopedia of Grapes. Hardcourt,inc. pp. gs 252–253. ISBN 0-15-100714-4.
^ Oz Clark&Margaret Rand (2001). Oz Clarke's Encyclopedia of Grapes. Hardcourt,inc. pp. g 253. ISBN 0-15-100714-4.

Slovak wine

2011-05-10T02:40:00.000-07:00

Slovak wine is produced in the southern part of Slovakia, which is divided into 6 wine-producing areas.^[1] Although Slovak wines except Tokaj are not well-known internationally, they are popular domestically and in neighbouring countries.

Malokarpatská - "Lesser Carpathian wine region"
Južnoslovenská - "South Slovak wine region"
Nitrianska - "Nitra wine region"
Stredoslovenská - "Central Slovak wine region"
Východoslovenská - "The East Slovak wine region"
Tokajská - "Tokaj wine region"

Grape varieties

The most commonly grown grape varietiews in Slovakia:

Veltlínské zelené (Grüner Veltliner) - White - 3,695 ha (9,130 acres)
Rizling vlašský (Welschriesling) - White - 2,997 ha (7,410 acres)
Frankovka modrá (Blaufränkisch) - Red - 1,787 ha (4,420 acres)
Müller-Thurgau - White - 1,743 ha (4,310 acres)
Svätovavrinecké (St. Laurent) - Red - 1,337 ha (3,300 acres)
Rulandské biele (Pinot Blanc) - White - 934 ha (2,310 acres)
Rizling rýnsky (Riesling) - White - 925 ha (2,290 acres)
Cabernet Sauvignon - Red - 626 ha (1,550 acres)

Origin specification

Typically, the label will specify the wine's origin with the following terms

vinohradnícka oblasť - region, e.g. Malokarpatská, Južnoslovenská, Nitrianska, Stredoslovenská, Východoslovenská and Tokajská
vinohradnícky rajón - subregion - there are 40 subregions in Slovak regions
vinohradnícka obec - municipality/village - 690 in Slovakia
vinohradnícky hon - vineyard

Composition

The types of wine is usually labelled with one of the following terms:

Víno bez zemepisného označenia - "Wine without geographic indication" is replacing former category of Stolové víno - Table wine. Minimum level of sugar content is 13 °NM^{[clarification needed]}.^[1]

Víno s chráneným zemepisným označením - "Wine with protected geographic indication" - produced from grapes registered in the List of registered varieties, grown, produced and bottled in one of the Slovak wine regions, maximum yield per hectare wasn't exceeded, minimum level of sugar content was 13 °NM and it fulfills the requirements of established product specification. It can be indicated with traditional term regionálne víno if the grapes reached 15 °NM, the maximum yield didn't exceed 18,000 kg/ha, wine has minimum 8.5% of alcohol and it complies with quality requirements.

Víno s chráneným označím pôvodu - "Wine with protected indication of origin" is produced from grapes registered in List of registered varieties, grown, produced and bottled in the same or proximate neighbouring Slovak wine regions, maximum yield per hectare wasn't exceeded, minimum level of sugar content was 16 °NM, there is existing protection on the designation of origin or geographical indication. Term Districtus Slovakia Controllatus, symbol and abbreviation "D. S. C." can be used if wine was certified.

Akostné víno - "Quality wine" classified by control institute as odrodové - "single varietal" (variety is written up in the List of registered grape varieties) or značkové "branded" (blend of two or more grape varieties or a single grape variety not written in the List or registered grape varieties). Wine is made from the grapes of which natural sugar content is at least 16 °NM and the maximum yield was not exceeded (18,000 kg/ha) with minimum of 9.5% alcohol. It can be chaptalised to 22 °NM for whites and 24 °NM for reds. Wine complies with quality requirements determined by special regulation.

Following terms can be used by specific conditions:

Mladé víno "Young wine" - has to be bottled before the end of the year of harvest. It is allowed to put the wine into the circulation as from the first Monday of November.

Archívne víno "Archive wine" - has matured at least three years after harvesting the grapes used for the production of the wine.

Panenská úroda "First fruits" - grapes used for the production came from the first harvest of a vineyard. The first harvest has to be from the third or fourth year after planting.

Akostné víno s prívlastkom - "Quality wine with attribute" classified by the control institute as the "quality wine with attribute" complies with quality requirements determined by special regulation, the maximum yield per hectare is not exceeded (13,000 kg/ha), vine variety, origin of grapes, its natural sugar contents, weight and health condition are certified before processing by an employee of the control institute, the ban on increase in natural alcoholic strength by volume and adjustment of residual sugar is observed.^[1]

Kabinetné "Kabinett" - yielded from full mature grapes having natural sugar content of at least 19 °NM, and minimum of 9.5% alcohol. Wines are primarily suché - "dry", rarely polosuché - "medium dry".

Neskorý zber "Late harvest" yielded from full mature grapes having natural sugar contents of at least 21 °NM and minimum of 9.5% alcohol. Wines are primarily suché - "dry", occasionally polosuché - "medium dry" and rarely polosladké - "medium sweet".

Výber z hrozna "Grapes selection" - yielded from full mature grapes having natural sugar contents of at least 23 °NM, obtained from carefully selected bunches and with minimum of 9.5% alcohol. Residual sugar varies from suché to polosuché and polosladké - "dry, medium dry and medium sweet".

Bobuľový výber "Berry selection" - yielded from manually selected overripe grape bunches from which immature and impaired berries have been removed manually, having natural sugar contents of at least 26 °NM and at least 8% of alcohol. Wines are having mainly higher residual sugar - "polosuché and polosladké" , although suché "dry" versions are common as well.

Hrozienkový výber "Raisin selection" - yielded exclusively from manually selected overripe natural grape berries, having sugar contents of at least 28 °NM and at least 8% alcohol. Wines are primarily sladké - "sweet".

Cibébový výber "Nobly rotten raisin selection" - yielded exclusively from manually selected overripe grape berries refined by effect of Botrytis cinerea Persoon, having natural sugar contents of at least 28 °NM and minimum content 8 % of alcohol. Wines are sladké - "sweet".

Ľadové víno "Ice wine" - yielded from grapes harvested at the temperature of minus 7 °C (19 °F) and lower, the grapes remained frozen during the harvesting and processing, and the obtained must had natural sugar contents of at least 27 °NM, wine has at least 6% of alcohol. Wines are sladké - "sweet".

Slamové víno "Straw wine" - yielded from well ripened grapes, stored before processing on straw or in reed matting, alternatively it has been left hanging on strings for at least three months and the natural sugar content of obtained must was at least 27 °NM, wine has at least 6% of alcohol. Wines are primarily sladké - "sweet".

Likérové víno "Liqueur wine"

A bottle of Tokajsky

Indication of the sugar content

Suché - "Dry" If its sugar content does not exceed 4 grams per litre, or 9 grams per litre, provided that the total acidity expressed as grams of tartaric acid per litre is not more than 2 grams below the residual sugar content.
Polosuché "Medium dry" - If its sugar content exceeds the maximum set at above but not exceeds 12 grams per litre, or 18 grams per litre, provided that the total acidity expressed as grams of tartaric acid per litre is not more than 10 grams below the residual sugar content.
Polosladké "Medium/Medium sweet" - If its sugar content is higher than the maximum set at above but not more than 45 grams per litre.
Sladké "Sweet" - If its sugar content is of at least 45 grams per litre.

Sparkling wines

Šumivé víno "Sparkling wine" shall be the product, which is obtained by first or second alcoholic fermentation from fresh grapes, grape must and from wine. Has an excess pressure, due to carbon dioxide in solution, of not less than 300 kPa (3 bar) when kept at a temperature of 20 °C in closed containers, when these are opened, it releases carbon dioxide derived exclusively from fermentation. The total alcoholic strength of the cuvées intended for their preparation shall not be less than 8.5% vol.

Akostné šumivé víno "Quality sparkling wine" As sparkling wine. Excess pressure of not less than 350 kPa (3.5 bar), the total alcoholic strength of the cuvées intended for their preparation shall not be less than 9% vol.

Akostné aromatické šumivé víno "Quality aromatic sparkling wine" is obtained only by making use, when constituting the cuvée, of grape must or grape must in fermentation which are derived from specific wine grape varieties on a list, excess pressure of not less than 300 kPa (3 bar), of which the actual alcoholic strength may not be less than 6% vol. and of which the total alcoholic strength may not be less than 10% vol.

Traditional terms:

Pestovateľský Sekt Basic conditions of the production are met with condition for producing quality sparkling wines and the last phase of the process of sparkling wine yielding is carried out by the winegrower of the vineyard from which grapes used for the production are. Single components of the cuvée of the pestovateľský sekt shall be from one wine-growing area.

Sekt vinohradníckej oblasti Sparkling wine obtained by primary or secondary fermentation of quality wine from grapes grown on wine-growing fields in wine-growing areas and exclusively in the wine-growing area where grapes for its yielding are grown or in immediately neighbouring area and basic conditions of the production are met with condition for quality sparkling wines.

Perlivé víno "Semi sparkling wine"

Sýtené víno "Aerated sparkling wine"

Indication of the sugar content (sparkling wine, aerated sparkling wine, quality sparkling wine or quality aromatic sparkling wine)

Brut Nature - If its sugar content is less than 3 grams per litre; these terms may be used only for products to which no sugar has been added after the secondary fermentation.
Extra Brut - If its sugar content is between 0 and 6 grams per litre.
Brut - If its sugar content is less than 12 grams per litre.
Extra Dry - If its sugar content is between 12 and 17 grams per litre.
Dry - If its sugar content is between 17 and 32 grams per litre.
Demi - Sec - If its sugar content is between 32 and 50 grams per litre.
Sladké - "Doux/Sweet" - If its sugar content is greater than 50 grams per litre.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c "Slovak Wine". http://www.snooth.com/region/slovakia/. Retrieved 26 December 2009.

Gary Vaynerchuk: Do what you love (Web 2.0 Expo)

2011-05-09T11:53:00.000-07:00

At the Web 2.0 Expo, entrepreneur Gary Vaynerchuk gives a shot in the arm to dreamers and up-and-comers who face self-doubt. The Internet has made the formula for success simpler than ever, he argues. So there's now no excuse not to do what makes you happy.

Gary Vaynerchuk's Wine Library TV combines an irreverent approach to wine and a shrewd social media strategy. It won him web fame and the cachet to spin off book deals, new businesses and his own entrepreneurship consulting firm.

Bestselling author and entrepreneur Gary Vaynerchuk began his career in his family's business, Shopper’s Discount Liquors. He soon rebranded the store as Wine Library, launching a retail website and boosting its revenue from $4 million to $60 million.

In 2006 Vaynerchuk launched Wine Library TV, a daily video blog about wine. With the tagline "changing the wine world," the show offers an unpretentious approach to a historically stuffy subject. As the audience grew and word spread of his informal and unorthodox approach to wine, Gary made numerous national television appearances and landed a book deal.

He's recently launched a new consulting venture, VaynerMedia, which works with personal brands, consumer brands, and startups.

"[Vaynerchuk] ... brings a hyperkinetic style to the normally dry business of judging syrahs and merlots. "

Slate

Who is Gary Vaynerchuk ?

2011-05-09T11:48:00.000-07:00

Gary Vaynerchuk, who was born on November 14, 1975, in Babruysk, U.S.S.R., (presently Belarus), is a video blogger, co-owner and director of operations of a wine retail store, and an author and public speaker on the subjects of social media, brand building and e-commerce. Vaynerchuk immigrated to the U.S. in 1978, and after graduating from Mount Ida College in Newton, MA, transformed his father's Springfield, NJ liquor store into a large scale retail wine store named Wine Library,^[1] and in 2006 started the video blog Wine Library TV, a daily internet webcast on the subject of wine, which launched his career of internet celebrity.

He has been featured in The Wall Street Journal,^[2] GQ, and Time,^[3] appeared on Late Night with Conan O'Brien and Ellen.^[4] Vaynerchuk has been described as "the first wine guru of the YouTube era",^[5]^[6] "the wine world's new superstar",^[7] and by Rob Newsom, a Washington State wine maker, "outside of Robert Parker, probably the most influential wine critic in the United States".^[8] In the July 2009 Decanter publication of "The Power List" ranking of the wine industry's individuals of influence, Vaynerchuk placed at number 40, citing that he "represents the power of blogging".^[9]^[10]

In August 2010 it was announced that Vaynerchuk will host a weekly, two hour call-in radio show titled Wine & Web with Gary Vaynerchuk on the digital radio station Sirius XM.^[11]

Wine Library TV

New Media Expo 2008

Left: with Justine Ezarik & Leo Laporte Right: with Ezarik, et al.

Wine Library TV (WLTV or The Thunder Show) (2006–present) is a video podcast hosted by Vaynerchuk, featuring wine reviews and advice on wine appreciation. Episodes consists of wine tastings along with other wine related topics. The show debuted on February 21, 2006, and is produced on a daily basis, on weekdays, and is taped in the Wine Library store in Springfield, NJ. Episodes taped Monday through Thursday take place on a desk in Vaynerchuk's office, normally tasting three or four wines, and the Friday episode takes place on Vaynerchuk's office couch, tasting usually only one wine and answering questions submitted via his Facebook application Ask Gary.^[12] The show may be watched by 90,000 viewers.^[13] Vaynerchuk appeared on the cover of the December 2008 issue of Mutineer Magazine, launching the "Mutineer Interview" series.

Vaynerchuk gives his impressions and finally rates wines using the 100 point scale. As an outspoken critic of numerical scores, he has acknowledged his hypocrisy in using them.^[5]^[14]

While typically a one man show, on occasion guests have been featured in the program. To date celebrity guests include Jancis Robinson,^[13] Heidi Barrett, George M. Taber, Kevin Rose, Maynard James Keenan, Michael Steinberger, Ingrid Hoffmann, Timothy Ferriss, Jim Cramer of CNBC's Mad Money, Kermit Lynch, Wayne Gretzky, and Dick Vermeil.^[15]

Vaynerchuk has also announced a partnership with Eatdrinkordie.com, where he has released videos about wine, sometimes working with celebrities like Anna Faris.

In February 2009, Vaynerchuk launched Obsessed TV with partner Samantha Ettus. In March 2009, Wine Library TV was nominated in the Streamy Awards.

Crush It

In March 2009, Vaynerchuk signed a 10-book deal with HarperStudio for over $1,000,000 and released the first book, Crush It! Why Now is the Time to Cash in on your Passion, in October 2009. The deal is groundbreaking in the publishing world as one of the first attempts to successfully use a low-advance/high royalty business model.^[16] In the first weeks of its release Crush It climbed to #1 on the Amazon Best Seller list for Web Marketing books. It also opened at #2 on the New York Times bestseller list and #7 on the Wall Street Journal Bestseller List.^[17]

The book encourages people to determine what truly makes them happy and pursue monetizing around it on the internet. It argues that because of recent social and technological trends the cost of producing content has been driven low enough that passion, knowledge, and effort, which the book calls "sweat equity", are now all one needs to build a brand and business.

Crush It was also among the first books released on the Vook platform.^[18]
Vaynerchuk appeared in an episode of the CollegeHumor web series Jake and Amir in 2009, and parodied the slightly nonsensical aspect of Crush It.

Awards and honors

2003: Market Watch magazine Business Award: "Market Watch Leader" (youngest recipient ever)
2006: People's Choice Vloggie in the categories of "Cooking" and "Instructional/Educational"^[19]
2007: American Wine Blog Awards, Best Wine Podcast or Videoblog^[20]
2007: The Morning News's "Favorite Web Phenomenon, Soon-to-Be Culinary Celebrity, Web Bucket-Spitter"^[21]
2008: Bravo A-List Awards, 2008 Nominee for A-List Celebrity

Bibliography

Gary Vaynerchuk's 101 Wines: Guaranteed to Inspire, Delight, and Bring Thunder to Your World (2008)
Crush It!: Why NOW Is the Time to Cash In on Your Passion (2009)
The Thank You Economy (2011)

References

^ Asimov, Eric, The New York Times (September 8, 2009). "Pop goes the critic". The New York Times. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/09/dining/09pour.html?_r=1.
^ Vanessa O'Connell (2006-08-25). "Ripe for Change: Wine Sales Thrive As Old Barriers Start to Crumble". Wall Street Journal. http://www.post-gazette.com/pg/06237/716366-28.stm.
^ Stein, Joel, TIME Magazine (2007-06-28). "Totally Uncorked". Time Inc.. http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,1638446,00.html.
^ tv.winelibrary.com "About Winelibrary TV". http://tv.winelibrary.com/about. Retrieved 02-24-2007.
^ ^a ^b Steinberger, Mike, Slate (August 1, 2007). "Watch Me Drink!". http://www.slate.com/id/2171517/.
^ Crosariol, Beppi, The Globe and Mail (January 23, 2008). "YouTube wine guru: A subtle hint of 'Big League Chew'". http://www.theglobeandmail.com/servlet/story/RTGAM.20080123.wldecanter23/BNStory/lifeFoodWine/home.
^ Foley, Stephen, The Independent (08-04-2008). "Gary Vaynerchuk: The wine world's new superstar". London. http://www.independent.co.uk/life-style/food-and-drink/features/gary-vaynerchuk-the-wine-worlds-new-superstar-884063.html.
^ Page, Karen & Dornenburg, Andrew, Washington Post (2008-01-30). "Suited for the Super Bowl". The Washington Post. http://www.washingtonpost.com/wp-dyn/content/article/2008/01/29/AR2008012900731.html?nav=hcmodule.
^ Decanter (July 2009). "The Power List", p.39
^ Lechmere, Adam, Decanter.com (June 1, 2009). "Power List 2009: Parker Gives Way to Constellation". http://www.decanter.com/news/283609.html.
^ PRNewswire (August 20, 2010). SIRIUS XM to Launch Exclusive Weekly Show With Wine Expert, Social Media Commentator and Bestselling Author Gary Vaynerchuk
^ apps.facebook.com Ask Gary Facebook Application
^ ^a ^b Robinson, Jancis, Financial Times (November 15, 2008). "The online evangelist". http://www.ft.com/cms/s/0/752277bc-b1da-11dd-b97a-0000779fd18c.html.
^ "WLTV Spreadsheet". WLTV. http://tv.winelibrary.com/spreadsheet/. Retrieved 2007-02-26.
^ Dick Vermeil, Paul Smith and Gary Vaynerchuk - Episode #237
^ Nelson, Sara (April 2, 2009). Twitter's "Garyvee" Vaynerchuk Gets A Book Deal. http://online.wsj.com/article/SB123868606261082747.html.
^ "Hardcover Advice for the week of October 24, 2009". The New York Times. 2009-11-01. http://www.nytimes.com/2009/11/01/books/bestseller/. Retrieved 2009-11-02.
^ marketwire.com Gary Vaynerchuk's "Crush It!" Now a Vook
^ "And the Vloggie Winners are...". Pod Tech Network. Archived from the original on 2007-02-06. http://web.archive.org/web/20070206005542/http://www.podtech.net/home/technology/1441/and-the-vloggies-winners-are. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
^ "American Wine Blog Awards Winners". Fermentation. http://fermentation.typepad.com/fermentation/2007/02/american_wine_b_4.html. Retrieved 2007-02-23.
^ 2007 Editors’ Awards for Online Excellence, The Morning News

Gary Vaynerchuk's 101 Wines: Guaranteed to Inspire, Delight, and Bring Thunder to Your World

2011-05-09T11:41:00.000-07:00

Millions have logged onto Gary Vaynerchuk's Wine Library TV—watching him boldly and unconventionally rate hundreds of wines. Viewers are attracted to his youthful energy, unique voice, and often outrageous descriptions. Now, in Gary Vaynerchuk's 101 Wines, Vaynerchuk reveals his first ranked list of the most exciting and tantalizing spirits he has sampled while traveling the globe.

Deeming himself "the wine guy for the average Joe," Vaynerchuk avoids the pomposity of traditional educators. Unlike wine guides that lack animation and lecture rather than inspire, 101 Wines shows you how to develop the necessary go-drink-wine attitude. Vaynerchuk encourages you to trust your own palate—stressing that your love of a certain wine makes it good regardless of what the experts or the price on the bottle say. Vaynerchuk's recommendations span a wide range of prices, nations, grapes, and styles—allowing everyone from novices to connoisseurs to expand their wine horizons.

Unlock the secret to why Vaynerchuk labels wines "From Ruins to Riches," "Red with Fish," and "Not Your Father’s Spumante." Discover wines that taste like ones 10 times their price. Read as Vaynerchuk illuminates his top choices with vivid terminology such as "Bring the Thunder" and "Riding the Rainbow." Demystify conventions that once limited your wine-tasting desires. Journey through wine styles and break down barriers with his technical notes and stories behind the vintage. Smile as you realize you too can become a wine aficionado. With your newfound knowledge, you will out-entertain and enlighten your friends, host extraordinary parties and treat your taste buds to an exhilarating ride. So if you are ready to become a "Vayniac"—one devoted to selecting wines based on Vaynerchuk's innovative principles—grab that corkscrew because a wine sampling adventure like no other awaits.

GARY VAYNERCHUK is the Director of Operations at the Wine Library, located in Springfield, NJ. He has appeared on Late Night with Conan O'Brien and Ellen and has been featured in GQ, Men’s Health, and the New York Times. He was also the youngest retailer ever to receive Market Watch magazine’s prestigious Leader award in 2003, at age 28. He lives in New York City.

The Official Announcement by Gary:

Watch Gary’s official announcement of the book during episode 444 of Wine Library TV:

Reviews of 101 Wines:

“His descriptions are visceral and amusing.” – The Sacramento Bee

“Just downright fun.” – Food Reference.com

“Its usefulness as a wine resource will continue long after all the wines in the list have disappeared from shelves!” – Thekitchn.com

“…an excellent guide for newbies just learning about wine or for experienced drinkers looking for new wines.” – Uncrate.com

“Wildly entertaining.” – East Bay Express

“What I really love about this book is the genuine authenticity that just reverberates from everything that Gary has to say.” – Slashfood

Gary Vaynerchuk's 101 Wines - official announcement of the book during episode 444 of Wine Library TV

2011-05-09T11:40:00.000-07:00

The Official Announcement by Gary:

Watch Gary’s official announcement of the book during episode 444 of Wine Library TV:

Pinot noir

2011-05-09T10:38:00.000-07:00

Pinot noir (French pronunciation: [pinoˈnwaʁ]) is a black wine grape variety of the species Vitis vinifera. The name may also refer to wines created predominantly from Pinot noir grapes. The name is derived from the French words for "pine" and "black" alluding to the grape variety's tightly clustered dark purple pine cone-shaped bunches of fruit.

Pinot noir grapes are grown around the world, mostly in the cooler regions, but the grape is chiefly associated with the Burgundy region of France. It is widely considered to produce some of the finest wines in the world, but is a difficult variety to cultivate and transform into wine.^[1]

Pinot noir's home is France's Burgundy region, particularly on the Côte-d'Or which has produced some of the world's most celebrated wines for centuries. It is also planted in Austria, Argentina, Australia, Canada, Chile, north parts of Croatia, the Republic of Georgia, Germany, Italy, Hungary, the Republic of Macedonia, Moldova, Romania, New Zealand, South Africa, Serbia, Slovenia, Switzerland, Bulgaria, Czech Republic, United States, Uruguay, Ukraine and Slovakia. The United States has increasingly become a major Pinot noir producer, with some of the best regarded coming from the Willamette Valley in Oregon and California's Sonoma County with its Russian River Valley and Sonoma Coast appellations. Lesser known appellations can be found in Mendocino County's Anderson Valley as well as the Central Coast's Santa Lucia Highlands appellation and the Sta. Rita Hills American Viticultural Area in Santa Barbara County. In New Zealand, it is principally grown in Martinborough, Marlborough, Waipara and Central Otago.

The leaves of Pinot noir are generally smaller than those of Cabernet Sauvignon or Syrah and the vine is typically less vigorous than either of these varieties. The grape cluster is small and conico-cylindrical, vaguely shaped like a pine cone. Some viticultural historians believe this shape-similarity may have given rise to the name.^[2] In the vineyard Pinot noir is sensitive to wind and frost, cropping levels (it must be low yielding for production of quality wines), soil types and pruning techniques. In the winery it is sensitive to fermentation methods, yeast strains and is highly reflective of its terroir with different regions producing sometimes very different wines. Its thin skin makes it susceptible to bunch rot and similar fungal diseases of the bunch. The vines themselves are susceptible to powdery mildew, and in Burgundy (and elsewhere) infection by leaf roll and fanleaf viruses causes significant vine health problems. These complications have given the grape a reputation for being difficult to grow: Jancis Robinson calls Pinot a "minx of a vine"^[2] and André Tchelistcheff declared that "God made Cabernet Sauvignon whereas the devil made Pinot noir."^[2] Those who have had experience with contemporary, high health, Pinot noir clones in good vineyard sites would not however be so ready to endorse this oft-cited, but less than entirely accurate, generalisation; in the right conditions, and when of good clonal lineage and health, the vine can be more than adequately robust. It is nevertheless much less tolerant of hard, windy, hot and dry, harsh vineyard conditions than the likes of Cabernet Sauvignon, Syrah, Merlot, or Grenache.

Pinot noir wines are among the most popular in the world. Joel Fleischman of Vanity Fair describes Pinot noir as "the most romantic of wines, with so voluptuous a perfume, so sweet an edge, and so powerful a punch that, like falling in love, they make the blood run hot and the soul wax embarrassingly poetic."^[2] Master Sommelier Madeline Triffon calls pinot "sex in a glass".^[2] Peter Richardsson of OenoStyle christened it "a seductive yet fickle mistress!"^[3]

The tremendously broad range of bouquets, flavors, textures and impressions that Pinot noir can produce sometimes confuses tasters.^[2] In the broadest terms, the wine tends to be of light to medium body with an aroma reminiscent of black and / or red cherry, raspberry and to a lesser extent currant and many other fine small red and black berry fruits. Traditional red Burgundy is famous for its savoury fleshiness and 'farmyard' aromas (these latter not unassociated with mercaptans and other reductive characters), but changing fashions, modern winemaking techniques, and new easier-to-grow clones have favoured a lighter, more fruit-prominent, cleaner style. The wine's color when young is often compared to that of garnet, frequently being much lighter than that of other red wines. This is entirely natural and not a winemaking fault as Pinot noir has a lower skin anthocyanin (colouring matter) content than most other classical red / black varieties. However, an emerging, increasingly evident, style from California and New Zealand highlights a more powerful, fruit forward and darker wine that can tend toward Syrah (or even new world Malbec) in depth, extract, and alcoholic content.
Pinot noir is also used in the production of Champagne (usually along with Chardonnay and Pinot meunier) and is planted in most of the world's wine growing regions for use in both still and sparkling wines. Pinot noir grown for dry table wines is generally low-yielding and of lesser vigour than many other varieties, whereas when grown for use in sparkling wines (e.g. Champagne) it is generally cropped at significantly higher yields.

In addition to being used for the production of sparkling and still red wine, Pinot noir is also sometimes used for rosé still wines, and even vin gris white wines. Its juice is uncoloured.

History, mutants and clones

Pinot noir is almost certainly a very ancient variety that may be only one or two generations removed from wild, Vitis sylvestris, vines.^[4] Its origins are nevertheless unclear: In De re rustica, Columella describes a grape variety similar to Pinot noir in Burgundy during the 1st century AD,^[2]^[5] however, vines have grown wild as far north as Belgium in the days before phylloxera, and it is possible that Pinot represents a direct domestication of (hermaphrodite-flowered) Vitis sylvestris.

Ferdinand Regner has argued^[6] that Pinot noir is a cross between Pinot meunier (Schwarzriesling) and Traminer, but this claim has since been refuted.^[2] In fact Pinot meunier has been shown to be a chimerical mutation (in the epidermal cells) which makes the shoot tips and leaves prominently hairy-white and the vine a little smaller and early ripening.^[7] Thus Pinot meunier is a chimera with two tissue layers of different genetic makeup, both of which contain a mutation making them non-identical to, and mutations of, Pinot noir (as well as of any of the other colour forms of Pinot). As such, Pinot meunier cannot be a parent of Pinot noir, and, indeed, it seems likely that chimerical mutations which can generate Pinot gris from other Pinots (principally blanc or noir) may in turn be the genetic pathway for the emergence of Pinot Meunier.

Pinot gris is a Pinot colour sport (and can arise by mutation of Pinot noir or Pinot blanc), presumably representing a somatic mutation in either the VvMYBA1 or VvMYBA2 genes that control grape berry colour. Pinot blanc is a further mutation and can either naturally arise from or give rise to Pinot gris or Pinot noir; the mutation - reversion path is multi-directional therefore. The general DNA profiles of both Pinot gris and blanc are identical to Pinot noir;^[8] and other Pinots, Pinot moure and Pinot teinturier, are also genetically similarly close. It should be noted therefore that almost any given Pinot (of whatever berry colour) can occur as a complete mutation or as a chimera of almost any other Pinot ^[9] As such, suggestions that Pinot noir is the fundamental and original form of the Pinots are both misleading and highly tendentious. Indeed, if anything, Pinot blanc may be the original human-selected form of Pinot, although given the genetic variability of this longstanding genetic line, thinking of Pinot as a familial cluster of grapes sharing a fundamental and common genetic core is almost certainly nearest the truth. It is this 'core' around which the sub-varietally identifying colour variations (blanc, rouge, noir, gris, rose, violet, tenteurier, moure, etc.) occur, along with the more striking chimeric morphological mutation that is Pinot meunier, and the interesting further mutations of this variety as Pinot meunier gris and as the non-hairy mutation which the Germans classify as 'Samtrot' (effectively 'Pinot red velvet').

Pinot noir vines at Clos de Bèze, Gevrey-Chambertin, on Burgundy's Côte d'Or

A white berried sport of Pinot noir was propagated in 1936 by Henri Gouges of Burgundy, and there is now 2.5ha planted of this grape which Clive Coates^[10] calls Pinot Gouges, and others call Pinot Musigny. There is however no published evidence, nor any obvious reason, to believe that this is other than a (possibly quite fine) form of Pinot blanc, having simply arisen as a selected natural mutation of the original Pinot noir in the Gouges' vineyard.

Wrotham (pronounced "ruttum") Pinot is an English variety with white hairs on the upper surface of the leaves. Edward Hyams of Oxted Viticultural Research Station was alerted to a strange vine growing against a cottage wall in Wrotham in Kent, which local lore said was descended from vines brought over by the Romans. An experimental Blanc de Noir was made at Oxted, and in 1980 Richard Peterson took cuttings to California, where he now makes a pink sparkling Wrotham Pinot.^[11] Wrotham Pinot is sometimes regarded as a synonym of Pinot meunier, although it is claimed it has a higher natural sugar content and ripens two weeks earlier.^[12] However, in the absence of proper identification, and particularly of DNA classification, it remains highly probable that it is simply a locally-distinctive clone of Pinot meunier.

Pinot noir can be particularly prone to mutation (suggesting it has active transposable elements), and thanks to its long history in cultivation there are nowadays hundreds of different clones in vineyards and vine collections worldwide. More than 50 are officially recognized in France compared to only 25 of the much more widely planted cabernet sauvignon.^[1] The French Etablissement National Technique pour l’Amelioration de la Viticulture (ENTAV) has set up a programme to select the best clones of Pinot. This program has succeeded admirably in increasing the number of quality clones available to growers. Nonetheless, in the new world, particularly in Oregon, wines of extraordinary quality continue to be made from the (ex-University of California at Davis) Pommard (principally UCD4) and Wadensvil (UCD 1A and / or 2A) clones.^[2]

Gamay Beaujolais is a Californian misnomer for a UCD clone series of upright-growing ('Pinot droit') Pinot noir. Planted mostly in California it also became established in New Zealand.^[13] In this latter country, its disposition to poor fruit set in cool flowering conditions can be problematic. Claims that the 'Gamay Beaujolais' Pinot noir was brought to California by Paul Masson.^[14] are not correct. It was in fact collected in France by Harold Olmo for UCD in the 1950s and was one of the first Pinot noir vines this institution offered as a high health clonal line from about 1962 onward. However, it was always, and very misleadingly, identified at UCD as a 'Gamay Beaujolais' type (of Pinot noir). In general, these upright growing 'Pinot droit' clones are highly productive (in suitable, hot-to-warm, flowering conditions) and in California and New Zealand they give robust, burly, wines favoured by those who like muscle rather than charm and velvety finesse in their Pinot noir wines. In Burgundy, the use of (highly productive) Pinot droit clones is reportedly still widespread in inferior, Village appellation, or even non-appellation, vineyards and Pinot droit is consequently regarded, arguably with very good reason, as a (genetic) sub-form significantly inferior to classical, decumbent, 'Pinot fine' or 'Pinot tordu', clonal lines of Pinot.

Frühburgunder (Pinot Noir Précoce) is an early-ripening form of Pinot noir.^[1] Across the Pinot family, ripening in typical climates can be dispersed by as much as four, and even six, weeks between the very earliest (including Précoce) clones and the very latest ripening. Virus infection and excessive cropping significantly add to delaying of Pinot noir ripening.

In August 2007, French researchers announced the sequencing of the genome of Pinot noir.^[15] It is the first fruit crop to be sequenced, and only the fourth flowering plant.

Crosses

In the Middle Ages, the nobility and church of northeast France grew some form of Pinot in favoured plots, while peasants grew a large amount of the much more productive, but otherwise distinctly inferior, Gouais Blanc. Cross-pollination may have resulted from such close proximity, with the genetic distance between the two parents imparting hybrid vigour leading to the viticultural selection of a diverse range of offspring from this cross (which may, nevertheless, have also resulted from deliberate human intervention). In any case, however it occurred, offspring of the Pinot - Gouais cross include: Chardonnay, Aligoté, Auxerrois, Gamay, Melon and eleven others.^[8] It should not however be inferred that Pinot noir was the Pinot involved here; any member of the Pinot family appears genetically capable of being the Pinot parent to these ex-Gouais crosses.

In 1925 Pinot noir was crossed in South Africa with the Cinsaut grape (known locally by the misnomer 'Hermitage') to create a unique variety called Pinotage.

Regions

Australia

Pinot noir is produced in several wine growing areas of Australia, notably in the Yarra Valley, Geelong, the Bellarine Peninsula, Beechworth, South Gippsland, Sunbury, Macedon Ranges and Mornington Peninsula in Victoria, Adelaide Hills in South Australia, Great Southern Wine Region in Western Australia, all Tasmania, and the Canberra District in NSW.

Austria

In Austria, Pinot noir is sometimes called Blauburgunder (literally Blue Burgundy) and produced in Burgenland and Lower Austria. Austrian Pinot noir wines are dry red wines similar in character to the red wines of Burgundy, mostly aged in French barriques. Some of the best Austrian Pinots come from Neusiedlersee and Blaufraenkischland, (Burgenland) and Thermenregion (Lower Austria).

Canada

Quality Pinot noir has been grown in Ontario for some time in the Niagara Peninsula and especially the Short Hills Bench wine region, as well as in Prince Edward County and on the north shore of Lake Erie. It has also been grown recently in the Okanagan, Lower Mainland, and Vancouver Island wine regions of British Columbia and the Annapolis Valley region of Nova Scotia.

UK

Pinot noir is increasingly being planted in the U.K., mostly for use in sparkling wine blends such as Nyetimber. It is sometimes made into a fairly light still red or rose wine, in the style of Alsace; Chapel Down are particular keen on it.

France

2 bottles of Red Burgundy from Gevrey-Chambertin, Côte de Nuits.

Pinot noir has made France's Burgundy appellation famous, and vice-versa. Many wine historians, including John Winthrop Haeger and Roger Dion, believe that the association between pinot and Burgundy was the explicit strategy of Burgundy's Valois dukes. Roger Dion, in his thesis regarding Philip the Bold's role in promoting the spread of Pinot noir, holds that the reputation of Beaune wines as "the finest in the world" was a propaganda triumph of Burgundy's Valois dukes.^[2] In any event, the worldwide archetype for Pinot noir is that grown in Burgundy where it has been cultivated since AD100.

Burgundy's Pinot noir produces great wines which can age very well in good years, developing complex fruit and forest floor flavours as they age, often reaching peak 15 or 20 years after the vintage. Many of the wines are produced in very small quantities and can be very expensive. Today, the celebrated Côte d’Or area of Burgundy has about 4,500 hectares (11,000 acres) of Pinot noir. Most of the region's finest wines are produced from this area. The Côte Chalonnaise and Mâconnais regions in southern Burgundy have another 4,000 hectares (10,000 acres), but their wines are typically very much less fine.

In Jura département, across the river valley from Burgundy, the wines made from Pinot noir are lighter.

In Champagne it used in blending with Chardonnay and Pinot meunier. It can also appear unblended, in which case it may be labeled blanc de noirs. The Champagne appellation has more Pinot planted than any other area of France.

In Sancerre it is used to make red and rosé wines, much lighter in style that those of Burgundy, refreshing served chilled, especially in warmer years when they are less thin.

In Alsace it is generally used to make Pinot-noir d'Alsace (fr), a varietal rosé wine. However, it is also used to make genuine red wines usually called Pinot noir rouge, which are similar in character to red Burgundy and Beaujolais wines but are consumed chilled. Prominent examples are Rouge de Barr and Rouge d'Ottrott (fr). Pinot noir rouge is the only red wine produced in Alsace. Lack of acidity and complexity often prevent Alsatian Pinot noir from achieving anything more than pleasant, easy drinking, quality levels.

Germany

In Germany it is called Spätburgunder (lit. "Late Burgundian"), and is now the most widely planted red grape.^[1] Historically much German wine produced from Pinot noir was pale, often rosé like the red wines of Alsace, and very simple; over-cropping and bunch-rot were major contributing factors to this. However recently, despite the northerly climate, darker, richer reds have been produced, often barrel (barrique) aged, in regions such as Baden, Palatinate (Pfalz) and Ahr. These are rarely exported and are often very expensive in Germany for the better examples. As "Rhenish", German Pinot noir is mentioned several times in Shakesperean plays as a highly prized wine.^[16]

There is also a smaller-berried, early ripening, lower yield variety called Frühburgunder (Pinot noir précoce, lit. "Early Burgundian") which is grown in Rheinhessen and Ahr area and can produce very good wines. In the last 20 years or so, serious efforts have been made to develop and husband good quality high health clones of Frühburgunder selected from Wurtenburg vineyards, and the future of this form of Pinot noir in Germany consequently looks promising.

Italy

In Italy, where Pinot noir is known as Pinot nero, it has traditionally been cultivated in the Alto Adige, Collio Goriziano, Oltrepò Pavese and Trentino regions to produce Burgundy-style red wines. Cultivation of Pinot noir in other regions of Italy, mostly since the 1980s, has been challenging due to climate and soil conditions.

In Alto Adige (called also Südtirol or historically Tirol) the variety is first noted 1838 as "Bourgoigne noir" in a grape wine buy list of the "k.u.k. Landwirtschafts-Gesellschaft von Tirol und Vorarlberg, Niederlassung Bozen" and later called "Blauburgunder" like in Austria. The first analytical descriptions are from Edmund Mach (founder of Ist. Agr. San Michele a.A.) in the year 1894: Friedrich Boscarolli - Rametz/Meran - Rametzer Burgunder 1890, Chorherrenstift Neustift - Blauburgunder 1890, R.v.Bressendorf - Vernaun/Meran - Burgunder 1890, C.Frank - Rebhof Gries Bozen - Burgunder 1889, Fr. Tschurtschenthaler - Bozen - Burgunder 1890 & 1891, Fr. Tschurtschenthaler - Bozen - Kreuzbichler 1889 & 1891 & 1887.^[17] Today very small quantities from certain micro-zones (Mazon/Neumarkt, Buchholz, Eppan Berg, Vinschgau) are regularly on the top of Italian Pinot nero degustations. See for example the Pinot nero days

Moldova

Pinot noir grapes in a vineyard in Moldova.

Large amounts of Pinot were planted in central Moldova during the 19th century, but much was lost to the ravages of phylloxera; Soviet control of Moldova from 1940 to 1991 also reduced the productivity of vineyards. Quality is somewhat variable; Moldovan Pinot can be overoaked and rather rough.

New Zealand

Pinot noir is a grape variety whose importance in New Zealand is extremely high. Initial results were not promising however, for several reasons, including high levels of leaf roll virus in older plantings, and, during the 1960s and 1970s, the limited number and indifferent quality of Pinot noir clones available for planting. However since this time importation of high quality clones and much-improved viticulture and winemaking has seen Pinot noir from Martinborough in the north to Central Otago in the south win numerous international awards and accolades. Pinot noir is now one of New Zealand's most sought-after varieties and is its pre-eminent red varietal (outside of the Syrah and Bordeaux varietals produced in Hawkes Bay).

Historically, one notable Pinot noir wine was the St Helena 1984 Pinot noir from the Canterbury region. This led to the belief for a time that Canterbury might become the natural home for Pinot noir in New Zealand. While the early excitement passed, the Canterbury region has witnessed the development of Pinot noir as the dominant red variety. The next region to excel with Pinot noir was Martinborough on the southern end of the North Island. The moderate climate and long growing season gives wines of great intensity and complexity. In the 2000s, other sub-regions in the Wairarapa have been developed to the north of Martinborough.

At around this time the first plantings of Pinot noir in the Central Otago wine region occurred in the Kawarau Gorge near Bannockburn. Central Otago had a long (for New Zealand) history as a producer of quality stone fruit and particularly cherries. Significantly further south than all other wine regions in New Zealand, it had been overlooked despite a long history of grape growing, albeit with little serious wine production. However, Central Otago benefits from being surrounded by mountain ranges which increased its temperature variations both between seasons and between night and day making the climate unusual when compared with the typically maritime conditions in New Zealand; Central Otago's climate is in fact markedly continental.

Some of the first vines were planted in holes blasted out of the north facing schist slopes of the region;, such highly marginal conditions underscore the initial difficulties confronting contemporary 'pioneering' vineyards in this region. The first results coming in the mid to late 1990s excited the interest of British wine commentators, including Jancis Robinson and Oz Clarke. The latest sub-region appears to be Waitaki, near Kurow, on the border between Otago and Canterbury.

A recent blind tasting of New Zealand Pinot noir featured in Cuisine magazine (issue 119), Michael Cooper reported that of the top ten wines, five came from Central Otago, four from Marlborough and one from Waipara. This compares with all top ten wines coming from Marlborough in an equivalent blind tasting from last year. Cooper suggests that this has to do with more Central Otago production becoming available in commercial quantities, than the relative qualities of the regions' Pinot noir. In addition, as the industry has matured, many of the country's top producers have made the decision to no longer submit their wines to reviews or shows.

Typically, New Zealand Pinot noir is fruit-driven, forward and early maturing in the bottle. Alcohol levels are markedly higher than for Burgundies, and natural acidity lower. Many New Zealand Pinot noir producers leave their fruit on the vine much longer than is either possible or acceptable in Burgundian vineyards, and plummy flavours, heavier textures, and consequently more Syrah-like wine structure, results. Markedly, the wines tend to be quite full bodied (for the variety) and very approachable in their youth. High quality examples of New Zealand Pinot noir, particularly from the Martinborough region, are distinguished by savoury, earthy flavours with a greater complexity. Central Otago Pinot noirs have become characterised as 'fruit bombs': big, soft textured, wines rich in flavours like boysenberry and Blackboy peach, high in alcohol and low in natural acid. More subtle, finer, examples are produced however, but they are usually elite wines only. Tamarilo characters, which were prominent in the above-mentioned St. Helena Pinot noir, continue to characterise many large production Waipara Pinot noirs and most Canterbury ones as well. Specialist producers in these co-mingled regions can surpass these limitations however, and a range of wines, from burly, bold, tannic and dark new-world style 'Reserves' to finer, more Burgundian-influenced Pinot noirs are now becoming more prominent. Marlborough Pinot noirs are often fragrant and appealingly round, but can lack depth and proper tannin ripeness. Multi-area blends made by large producers (usually blending Marlborough, Waipara, and Central Otago fruit) can offer good value and good drinking at affordable prices.

Slovenia

In Slovenia, the pinot noir is produced especially in the Slovenian Littoral, particularly in the Goriška Brda (Collio Goriziano) sub-region. In smaller amounts, the pinot noir is also produced in Slovenian Styria.

Spain

Pinot noir has recently been produced in small amounts in Lleida province, Catalonia, under the appellation "Costers del Segre" DO.
Pinot noir is recently being produced in small amounts in Ronda (province Malaga, Andalusia) by Cortijo Los Aguilares. It got a Great Golden Medal at the Pinot Noir Competition, in Sierre (Valais, Switzerland), this year.

Switzerland

Pinot noir is a popular grape variety all over Switzerland. In German speaking regions of Switzerland it is often called Blauburgunder. Pinot noir wines are produced in Neuchâtel, Schaffhausen, St. Gallen and Bündner Herrschaft. Neuchâtel, across the border from Burgundy, is renowned for its Pinot noir, a full bodied dry red wine. In Valais, Pinot noir is blended with Gamay to produce the well known Dôle.

United States

By volume most Pinot noir in America is grown in California with Oregon coming in second. Other regions are Washington State, Michigan and New York.
California wine regions known for producing Pinot noir are:

Sonoma Coast
Russian River Valley AVA
Central Coast AVA
Sta. Rita Hills
Monterey County / Santa Lucia Highlands
Santa Cruz Mountains AVA
Carneros District of Napa and Sonoma
Anderson Valley
Livermore Valley
San Luis Obispo County / Arroyo Grande Valley, Edna Valley

Oregon wine regions known for producing Pinot noir:

Willamette Valley AVA

Although Oregon Pinot noir pioneer David Lett of Eyrie Vineyards is widely credited for first having planted Pinot noir in Oregon in 1965, Richard Sommers of Hillcrest Vineyards should be regarded as the first to plant and produce Pinot noir.^{[citation needed]} He planted the variety in 1959 at his vineyards in the Umpqua Valley and produced wine from those vineyards in the early 1960s.^{[citation needed]} In the 1970s several other growers followed suit. In 1979, David Lett took his wines to a competition in Paris, known in English as the Wine Olympics, and they placed third among pinots. In a 1980 rematch arranged by French wine magnate Robert Drouhin, the Eyrie vintage improved to second place. The competition established Oregon as a world class Pinot noir producing region.^[18]^[19]

The Willamette Valley of Oregon is at the same latitude as the Burgundy region of France, and has a similar climate in which the finicky Pinot noir grapes thrive. In 1987, Drouhin purchased land in the Willamette Valley, and in 1989 built Domaine Drouhin Oregon, a state-of-the-art, gravity-fed winery. Throughout the 1980s, the Oregon wine industry blossomed.

Recent popularity

During 2004 and the beginning of 2005, Pinot noir became considerably more popular amongst consumers in the United States of America, Australia, New Zealand and Asia possibly because of the movie Sideways.^[20] Being lighter in style, it has benefited from a trend toward more restrained, less alcoholic wines being at or around 12% alcohol by volume. Robert Parker has described Pinot noir in Parker's Wine Buying Guide:

“

When it's great, Pinot noir produces the most complex, hedonistic, and remarkably thrilling red wine in the world...

”

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Robinson, Jancis (2006). The Oxford Companion to Wine, Third Edition. Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-860990-6.
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j page 19
^ OenoStyle
^ Graves, David (2006). "On Varietal Origins: A Chat Between Wavey & The Professor". http://www.saintsbury.com/college_varietals.html/Interview.
^ The Origin of Chardonnay^{[dead link]} Meredith, Bowers, Boursiquot and This
^ Regner F; Stadlbauer A, Eisenheld C, Kaserer H (2000). "Genetic Relationships Among Pinots and Related". Am. J. Enol. Vitic. 51 (1): 7–14. http://www.ajevonline.org/cgi/content/abstract/51/1/7.
^ Boss, P; Thomas M (2002-04-25). "Association of dwarfism and floral induction with a grape 'green revolution' mutation". Nature 416 (6883): 847–850. doi:10.1038/416847a. PMID 11976683. http://www.nature.com/nature/journal/v416/n6883/full/416847a.html.
^ ^a ^b Meredith, Carole (2002-11-02). "Science as a Window into Wine History" (PDF). American Academy of Arts and Sciences. http://www.amacad.org/publications/bulletin/winter2003/wine.pdf.
^ Hocquigny S; Pelsy F, Dumas V, Kindt S, Heloir M, Merdinoglu D (2004). "Diversification within grapevine cultivars goes through chimeric states". Genome 47 (3): 579–589. doi:10.1139/g04-006. PMID 15190375. http://article.pubs.nrc-cnrc.gc.ca/ppv/RPViewDoc?issn=0831-2796&volume=47&issue=3&startPage=579.
^ Clive Coates, Cote D'Or (1997) pp. 144 and 457
^ "The Story Behind Wrotham Pinot". http://richardgrantwine.com/wrotham-story.html.
^ "History of English wine Production". English Wine Producers Marketing Association. http://www.englishwineproducers.com/history.htm.
^ Robinson J (2002). Vines Grapes & Wines. Mitchell Beazley. pp. 227.
^ Adams, Leon D (1984). The Wines of America. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 0395154561.
^ Hopkin, M (2007-08-26). "Grape genome unpicked". Nature News (Nature). doi:10.1038/news070820-13. http://www.nature.com/news/2007/070820/full/070820-13.html.
^ Stuart Walton, Understanding, Choosing and Enjoying Wine Hermes House 2006, p180
^ Peter Dipoli, Michela Carlotto: Mazon und sein Blauburgunder (in italian: Mazzon e il suo Pinot nero), Verschönerungsverein Neumarkt, Fotolito Varesco, Auer, 2009 - ISBN 978-88-8300-032-4
^ Teichgraeber, Tim (October 14, 2008). "David Lett, founder of Oregon Pinot Noir, dies". Decanter. http://www.decanter.com/news/269943.html. Retrieved December 15, 2009.
^ Colman, Tyler (October 13, 2008). "David Lett and an Eyrie Vineyards retrospective". Dr. Vino. http://www.drvino.com/2008/10/13/david-lett-and-an-eyrie-vineyards-retrospective/. Retrieved December 15, 2009.
^ Merlot demand skids, perhaps ‘Sideways?’ - Food Inc. - MSNBC.com

Food and Wine Pairing: A Sensory Experience

2011-05-08T14:45:00.000-07:00

THE ONLY BOOK THAT PRESENTS FOOD AND WINE PAIRING FROM A CULINARY AND SENSORY PERSPECTIVE.

Demystifying the terminology and methodology of matching wine to food, Food and Wine Pairing: A Sensory Experience presents a practical, user-friendly approach grounded in understanding the direct relationships and reactions between food and wine components, flavors, and textures. This approach uses sensory analysis to help the practitioner identify key elements that affect pairings, rather than simply following the usual laundry list of wine-to-food matches. The text takes a culinary perspective first, making it a unique resource for culinary students and professionals.

FOOD AND WINE PAIRING:

Lays out the basics of wine evaluation and the hierarchy of taste concepts
Establishes the foundation taste components of sweet, sour, slat, and bitter in food, and dry, acidity, and effervescence in wine, and looks at how these components relate to one another
Discusses wine texture, and the results of their interactions with one another
Examines the impact that spice, flavor type, flavor intensity, and flavor persistency have one the quality of wine and food matches
Includes exercises to improve skills relating to taste identification and palate mapping
Provides a systematic process for predicting successful matches using sequential and mixed tasting methods
Gives guidance on pairing wine with foods such as cheese and various desserts, as well as service issues such as training and menu/wine list development

Food and Wine Paring provides students and professionals with vivid and dynamic learning features to bring the matching process to life with detail and clarity. real-world examples include menus and tasting notes from renowned restaurants, as well as Aperitifs or vignettes portraying culinary notables - both individuals and organizations - which set their wine parings in a complete gastronomical, regional, and cultural context.

Culinary students making their initial foray into understanding paring will appreciate the reader-friendly and comprehensive approach taken by Food and Wine Pairing. More advanced students, instructors, and culinary professionals will find this text to be an unparalleled tool for developing their matching process and honing their tasting instinct.

About the Author

Dr. Robert Harrington is currently an associate professor at the School of Hospitality and Tourism Management at the University of Guelph. He recently transferred from Nicholls State University in May, 2005 where he served as Dean and Professor of Chef John Folse Culinary Institute for four years.

Merlot

2011-05-08T06:42:00.000-07:00

Merlot is a red wine grape that is used as both a blending grape and for varietal wines. The name Merlot is thought to derive from the Old French word for young blackbird, merlot, a diminutive of merle, the blackbird (Turdus merula), probably from the color of the grape. Merlot-based wines usually have medium body with hints of berry, plum, and currant. Its softness and "fleshiness", combined with its earlier ripening, makes Merlot a popular grape for blending with the sterner, later-ripening Cabernet Sauvignon, which tends to be higher in tannin.

Along with Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet Franc, Malbec and Petit Verdot, Merlot is one of the primary grapes in Bordeaux wine where it is the most widely planted grape. Merlot is also one of the most popular red wine varietals in many markets.^[1] This flexibility has helped to make it one of the world's most planted grape varieties. As of 2004, Merlot was estimated to be the third most grown variety at 260,000 hectares (640,000 acres) globally, with an increasing trend.^[2] This puts Merlot just behind Cabernet Sauvignon's 262,000 hectares (650,000 acres).

Researchers at University of California, Davis believe that Merlot is an offspring of Cabernet Franc and is a sibling of Carménère and Cabernet Sauvignon. The earliest recorded mention of Merlot was in the notes of a local Bordeaux official who in 1784 labeled wine made from the grape in the Libournais region as one of the area's best. The name comes from the Occitan word "merlot", which means "young blackbird" ("merle" is the French word for several kinds of thrushes, including blackbirds); the naming came either because of the grape's beautiful dark-blue color, or due to blackbirds' fondness for grapes. By the 19th century it was being regularly planted in the Médoc on the "Left Bank" of the Gironde.^[3] After a series of setbacks that includes a severe frost in 1956 and several vintages in the 1960s lost to rot, French authorities in Bordeaux banned new plantings of Merlot vines between 1970 and 1975.^[4]

It was first recorded in Italy around Venice under the synonym Bordò in 1855. The grape was introduced to the Swiss, from Bordeaux, sometime in the 19th century and was recorded in the Swiss canton of Ticino between 1905 and 1910.^[3] In the 1990s, Merlot saw an upswing of popularity in the United States. Red wine consumption, in general, increased in the US following the airing of the 60 Minutes report on the French Paradox and the potential health benefits of wine and the chemical resveratrol. The popularity of Merlot stemmed in part from the relative ease in pronouncing the name of the wine as well as its softer, fruity profile that made it more approachable to some wine drinkers.^[5]

Viticulture

Merlot leaf

Merlot grapes are identified by their loose bunches of large berries. The color has less of a blue/black hue than Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and with a thinner skin and fewer tannins. Also compared to Cabernet, Merlot grapes tend to have a higher sugar content and lower malic acid.^[4] Merlot thrives in cold soil, particularly ferrous clay. The vine tends to bud early which gives it some risk to cold frost and its thin skin increases its susceptibility to rot. If bad weather occurs during flowering, the Merlot vine is prone to develop coulure.^[6] It normally ripens up to two weeks earlier than Cabernet Sauvignon. Water stress is important to the vine with it thriving in well drained soil more so than at base of a slope. Pruning is a major component to the quality of the wine that is produced. Wine consultant Michel Rolland is a major proponent for reducing the yields of Merlot grapes to improve quality.^[3] The age of the vine is also important, with older vines contributing character to the resulting wine.^[4]

A characteristic of the Merlot grape is the propensity to quickly overripen once it hits its initial ripeness level, sometimes in a matter of a few days. There are two schools of thought on the right time to harvest Merlot. The wine makers of Château Pétrus favor early picking to best maintain the wine's acidity and finesse as well as its potential for aging. Others, such as Rolland, favor late picking and the added fruit body that comes with a little bit of over-ripeness.^[3]

Major regions

France is home to nearly two thirds of the world's total plantings of Merlot.^[6] Beyond France it is also grown in Italy (where it is the country's 5th most planted grape), California, Romania, Australia, Argentina, Bulgaria, Turkey, Canada, Chile, New Zealand, South Africa, Switzerland, Croatia, Hungary, Montenegro, Slovenia, Mexico and other parts of the United States such as Washington and Long Island. It grows in many regions that also grow Cabernet Sauvignon but tends to be cultivated in the cooler portions of those areas. In areas that are too warm, Merlot will ripen too early.^[3]

Vineyards and winery exterior of Château Pétrus

France

Merlot is the most commonly grown grape variety in France. In 2004, total French plantations stood at 115,000 hectares (280,000 acres).^[7] It is most prominent in Southwest France in regions like Bordeaux, Bergerac and Cahors where it is often blended with Malbec. The largest recent increase in Merlot plantations has occurred in the south of France, such as Languedoc-Roussillon where it is often made as a varietal Vin de Pays wine.^[6] Merlot can also be found in significant quantities in Provence, Loire Valley, Savoie, Ardèche, Charente, Corrèze, Drôme, Isère and Vienne.^[3]

In the traditional Bordeaux blend, Merlot's role is to add body and softness. Despite accounting for 50-60% of overall plantings in Bordeaux, the grape tends to account for an average of 25% of the blends-especially in the Bordeaux wine regions of Graves and Médoc. Of these Left Bank regions, the commune of St-Estephe uses the highest percentage of Merlot in the blends.^[5] However, Merlot is much more prominent on the Right Bank of the Gironde in the regions of Pomerol and Saint-Émilion where it will commonly comprises the majority of the blend. One of the most famous and rare wines in the world, Château Pétrus, is almost all Merlot. In Pomerol, where Merlot usually accounts for around 80% of the blend, the iron-clay soils of the region give Merlot more a tannic backbone than what is found in other Bordeaux regions. It was in Pomerol that the garagistes movement began with small scale production of highly sought after Merlot based wines. In the sandy, clay-limestone based soils of Saint-Émilion, Merlot accounts for around 60% of the blend and is usually blended with Cabernet Franc. In limestone, Merlot tends to develop more perfume notes while in sandy soils the wines are generally softer than Merlot grown in clay dominant soils.^[3]

Rest of Europe

In Italy, a large portion of Merlot is planted in the Friuli wine region where it is made as a varietal or sometimes blended with Cabernet Sauvignon or Cabernet Franc. In other parts of Italy, such as Tuscany, it is often blended with Sangiovese to give the wine a similar softening effect as the Bordeaux blends.^[6] Merlot's low acidity serves as a balance for the higher acidity in many Italian wine grapes with the grape often being used in blends in the Veneto, Alto Adige and Umbria.^[3] The Strada del Merlot is a popular tourist route through Merlot wine countries along the Isonzo river.^[4] Italian Merlots are often characterized by their light bodies and herbal notes.^[5]
In Hungary, Merlot complements Kékfrankos, Kékoportó and Kadarka as a component in Bull's Blood. It is also made into varietal wine known as Egri Médoc Noir which is noted for its balanced acid levels and sweet taste.^[4] In the Eastern European countries of Bulgaria, Macedonia, Moldova, Croatia and Romania, Merlot is often produced as a full bodied wine that can be very similar to Cabernet Sauvignon.^[6] In Switzerland, Merlot accounts for nearly 85% of the wine production in Ticino where it is often made in a pale "white Merlot" style. In Spain, winemakers are petitioning authorities to allow Merlot to be a permitted grape in the red wines of the Rioja region. Plantings of Merlot has increased in recent years in the Austrian wine region of Burgenland where vineyards previously growing Welschriesling are being uprooted to make room for more plantings.^[3]

A Californian Merlot

United States

In the early history of California wine, the Merlot was used primarily as a 100% varietal wine until wine maker Warren Winiarski encouraged taking the grape back to its blending roots with Bordeaux style blends.^[8] In California, Merlot can range from very fruity simple wines (sometimes referred to by critics as a "red Chardonnay") to more serious, barrel aged examples. It can also be used a primary component in Meritage blends.^[6] While Merlot is grown throughout the state, it is particularly prominent in Napa, Monterey and Sonoma County. In Napa, examples from Los Carneros, Mount Veeder, Oakville and Rutherford tend to show ripe blackberry and black raspberry notes. Sonoma Merlots from Alexander Valley, Carneros and Dry Creek Valley tend to show plum, tea leaf and black cherry notes.^[5]

In the 1980s, Merlot helped put the Washington wine industry on the world's wine map. Prior to this period there was a general perception that the climate of Washington State was too cold to produce red wine varietals. Merlots from Leonetti Cellar, Andrew Will, Columbia Crest and Chateau Ste. Michelle demonstrated that areas of the Eastern Washington were warm enough for red wine production. Today it is the most widely grown red wine grape in the state and accounts for nearly one fifth of the state's entire production. It is widely planted throughout the Columbia Valley AVA but has earned particular notice from plantings grown in Walla Walla, Red Mountain and the Horse Heaven Hills.^[9] Washington Merlots are noted for their deep color and balanced acidity.^[6] The state's climate lends itself towards long days and hours of sunshine with cool nights that contributes to a significant diurnal temperature variation and produces wines with New World fruitiness and Old World structure.^[5] Other US regions producing significant quantities of Merlot include New York State's Long Island AVA, Virginia's Shenandoah Valley AVA and Oregon's Rogue Valley AVA.^[5]

Other New World regions

A Chilean Merlot

In Argentina, Merlot plantings have been increasing in the Mendoza region with the grape showing an affinity to the Tupungato region of the Uco Valley. Argentine Merlots grown in the higher elevations of Tunpungato have shown a balance of ripe fruit, tannic structure and acidty. In New Zealand, plantings of Merlot have increased in the Hawke's Bay Region, particularly in Gimblett Gravels where the grape has shown the ability to produce Bordeaux style wine.^[5] The grape has been growing in favor among New Zealand producers due to its ability to ripen better, with less green flavors, than Cabernet Sauvignon. Other regions with significant plantings include Auckland and Marlborough. In Australia, some vineyards labeled as "Merlot" were discovered to actually be Cabernet Franc (a similar discovery was made in best vineyards of Californian Merlot producer Duckhorn Vineyards). In South Africa, plantings of Merlot has focused on cooler sites within the Paarl and Stellenbosch regions.^[3]

Chile and Carménère

In Chile, Merlot thrives in the Apalta region of Colchagua Province.^[6] It is also grown in significant quantities in Curicó, Casablanca and the Maipo Valley. Until the early 1990s, the Chilean wine industry mistakenly sold a large quantity of wine made from the Carmenere grape as Merlot. Following the discovery that many Chilean vineyards thought to be planted with Sauvignon blanc was actually Sauvignonasse, the owners of the Chilean winery Domaine Paul Bruno (who previously worked with Château Margaux and Château Cos d'Estournel) invited ampelographers to comb through their vineyards to make sure that their wines were properly identified. Genetic studies discovered that much of what had been grown as Merlot was actually Carménère, an old French variety that had gone largely extinct in France due to its poor resistance to phylloxera. While the vines, leaves and grapes look very similar, both grapes produce wines with distinct characteristics – Carménère being more strongly flavored with green pepper notes and Merlot having softer fruit with chocolate notes. The labeling Chilean Merlot is a catch-all to include wine that is made from a blend of indiscriminate amounts of Merlot and Carmenere. With Merlot ripening 3 weeks earlier than Carménère, these wines differ greatly in quality depending on harvesting.^[3]

Mexico

In Mexico, Merlot is cultivated primarily in the Valle de Guadalupe of Baja California, the country´s main wine producing area. Plantings have increased substantially since the 1980s, and cultivation has spread into the nearby areas of Ojos Negros and Santo Tomás.

Wines

A Californian White Merlot

As a varietal wine, Merlot can make soft, velvety wines with plum flavors. While Merlot wines tend to mature faster than Cabernet Sauvignon, some examples can continue to develop in the bottle for decades.^[6] There are three main styles of Merlot-a soft, fruity, smooth wine with very little tannins, a fruity wine with more tannic structure and, finally, a brawny, highly tannic style made in the profile of Cabernet Sauvignon. Some of the fruit notes commonly associated with Merlot include cassis, black and red cherries, blackberry, blueberry, boysenberry, mulberry, ollalieberry and plum. Vegetable and earthy notes include black and green olives, cola nut, bell pepper, fennel, humus, leather, mushrooms, rhubarb and tobacco. Floral and herbal notes commonly associated with Merlot include green and black tea, eucalyptus, laurel, mint, oregano, pine, rosemary, sage, sarsaparilla and thyme. When Merlot has spent significant time in oak, the wine may show notes of caramel, chocolate, coconut, coffee bean, dill weed, mocha, molasses, smoke, vanilla and walnut.^[5]

White Merlot

White Merlot is made the same way as White Zinfandel. The grapes are crushed, and after very brief skin contact, the resulting pink juice is run off the must to then be fermented. It normally has a hint of raspberry. White Merlot was reputedly first marketed in the late 1990s, and should not be confused with wines made from the white mutant of the grape. In Switzerland, a type of White Merlot is made in the Ticino region but has been considered more a rosé.^[3]

Food pairing

Cooler climate Merlots, such as these wines from the Okanagan Valley in Canada, tend to have more acidity and versatility in food pairing

In food and wine pairings, the diversity of Merlot can lend itself to a wide array of matching options. Cabernet-like Merlots pair well with many of the same things that Cabernet Sauvignon would pair well with such as grilled and charred meats. Softer, fruitier Merlots (particularly those with higher acidity from cooler climate regions like Washington State and Northeastern Italy) share many of the same food pairing affinities with Pinot noir and go well with dishes like salmon, mushroom based dishes and greens like chard and radicchio. Light bodied Merlots can go well with shellfish like prawns or scallops, especially if wrapped in a protein-rich food such as bacon or prosciutto. Merlot tends not to go well with strong and blue veined cheeses that can overwhelm the fruit flavors of the wine. The capsaicins of spicy foods can accentuate the perception of alcohol in Merlot and make it taste more tannic and bitter.^[5]

References

^ "Wine Business Journal listing of varietal sales.". http://www.winebusiness.com/SalesMarketing/webarticle.cfm?dataId=42231.
^ J. Robinson (ed) The Oxford Companion to Wine Third Edition, Oxford University Press 2006, pg. 746: "Vine varieties", ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l Oz Clarke Encyclopedia of Grapes pg 129–133 Harcourt Books 2001 ISBN 0151007144
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e J. Robinson Vines, Grapes & Wines pg 91–94 Mitchell Beazley 1986 ISBN 1-85732-999-6
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ E. Goldstein "Perfect Pairings" pg 148–152 University of California Press 2006 ISBN 9780520243774
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ J. Robinson Jancis Robinson's Wine Course Third Edition pg 142–143 Abbeville Press 2003 ISBN 0789208830
^ BKWine Brief nr 35, May 2006: France’s most planted grape varieties
^ G. Taber Judgement of Paris pg 108 Scribner 2005 ISBN 0743247515
^ P. Gregutt "Washington Wines and Wineries: The Essential Guide" pg 70 University of California Press 2007 ISBN 0520248694

Cabernet Sauvignon

2011-05-08T05:42:00.000-07:00

Cabernet Sauvignon is one of the world's most widely recognized red wine grape varieties. It is grown in nearly every major wine producing country among a diverse spectrum of climates from Canada's Okanagan Valley to Lebanon's Beqaa Valley. Cabernet Sauvignon became internationally recognized through its prominence in Bordeaux wines where it is often blended with Merlot and Cabernet Franc. From France, the grape spread across Europe and to the New World where it found new homes in places like California's Napa Valley, Australia's Coonawarra region and Chile's Maipo Valley. For most of the 20th century, it was the world's most widely planted premium red wine grape until it was surpassed by Merlot in the 1990s.^[1]

Despite its prominence in the industry, the grape is a relatively new variety, the product of a chance crossing between Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc during the 17th century in southwestern France. Its popularity is often attributed to its ease of cultivation - the grapes have thick skins and the vines are hardy and resistant to rot and frost - and to its consistent presentation of structure and flavours which express the typical character ("typicity") of the variety. Familiarity and ease of pronunciation have helped to sell Cabernet Sauvignon wines to consumers, even when from unfamiliar wine regions. Its widespread popularity has also contributed to criticism of the grape as a "colonizer" that takes over wine regions at the expense of native grape varieties.^[2]

For many years, the origin of Cabernet Sauvignon was not clearly understood and many myths and conjectures surrounded it. The word "Sauvignon" is believed to be derived from the French sauvage meaning "wild" and to refer to the grape being a wild Vitis vinifera vine native to France. Until recently the grape was rumoured to have ancient origins, perhaps even being the Biturica grape used to make ancient Roman wine and referenced by Pliny the Elder. This belief was widely held in the 18th century, when the grape was also known as Petite Vidure or Bidure, apparently a corruption of Biturica. There was also belief that Vidure was a reference to the hard wood (French vigne dure) of the vine, with a possible relationship to Carménère which was once known as Grand Vidure.^[2] Other theories were that the grapevine originated in the Rioja region of Spain.^[3]

While the period when the name Cabernet Sauvignon became more prevalent over Petite Vidure is not certain, records indicate that the grape was a popular Bordeaux planting in the 18th century Médoc region. The first estates known to have actively grown the variety (and the likely source of Cabernet vines for other estates) were Château Mouton and Château d'Armailhac in the Pauillac.^[2]
The grape's true origins were discovered in the late 1990s with the use of DNA typing at the UC Davis Department of Viticulture and Enology, by a team led by Dr. Carole Meredith. The DNA evidence determined that Cabernet Sauvignon was the offspring of Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc and was most likely a chance crossing that occurred in the 17th century. Prior to this discovery, this origin had been suspected from the similarity of the grapes' names and the fact that Cabernet Sauvignon shares similar aromas with both grapes—such as the black currant and pencil box aromas of Cabernet franc and the grassiness of Sauvignon blanc.^[2]

Sauvignon blanc

Offspring and White Cabernet

While not as prolific in mutating as Pinot noir nor as widely used in production of offspring, Cabernet Sauvignon has been linked to other grape varieties. In 1961, a cross of Cabernet Sauvignon and Grenache produced the French wine grape Marselan.^[4] In 1977 a vine producing 'bronze' grapes was found in the vineyards of Cleggett Wines in Australia. They propagated this mutant, registered it under the name of Malian and have sold pale red wines under that name. In 1991 one of the Bronze Cabernet vines started producing white grapes. Cleggett registered this "White Cabernet" under the name of Shalistin.^[5] Compared to its Cabernet parent, Malian appears to lack anthocyanins in the subepidermal cells but retains them in the epidermis, whereas Shalistin has no anthocyanins in either layer. The team that went on to discover the VvMYBA1 and VvMYBA2 genes that control grape colour have suggested that a gene involved in anthocyanin production has been deleted in the subepidermis of Malian, and then subepidermal cells invaded the epidermis to produce Shalistin.^[6]

Viticulture

Cabernet Sauvignon leaf. In cooler climate conditions, vines will focus more energy in producing foliage, which is needed to capture sunlight for photosynthesis, rather than ripening grapes. This makes canopy management and aggressive pruning an important consideration for growers.^[1]

While Cabernet Sauvignon can grow in a variety of climates, its suitability as a varietal wine or as a blend component is strongly influenced by the warmth of the climate. The vine is one of the last major grape varieties to bud and ripen (typically 1–2 weeks after Merlot and Cabernet franc^[1]) and the climate of the growing season affects how early the grapes will be harvested. Many wine regions in California give the vine an abundance of sunshine with few problems in ripening fully, which increases the likelihood of producing varietal Cabernet wines. In regions like Bordeaux, under the threat of inclement harvest season weather, Cabernet Sauvignon is often harvested a little earlier than ideal and is then blended with other grapes to fill in the gaps. As global warming has increased the number of warm vintage years, the possibility of creating varietal Cabernet in Bordeaux has also increased, making the decision to blend based more on ideology and tradition. In some regions, climate will be more important than soil. In regions that are too cool, there is a potential for more herbaceous and green bell pepper flavours from less than ideally ripened grapes. In regions where the grape is exposed to excess warmth and over-ripening, there is a propensity for the wine to develop flavours of cooked or stewed blackcurrants.^[2]

The Cabernet grape variety has thrived in a variety of vineyard soil types, making the consideration of soil less of concern particularly for New World winemakers. In Bordeaux, the soil aspect of terroir was historically an important consideration in determining which of the major Bordeaux grape varieties were planted. While Merlot seemed to thrive in clay and limestone based soils (such as those of the Right Bank regions of the Gironde estuary), Cabernet Sauvignon seemed to perform better in the gravel based soil of the Médoc region on the Left Bank. The gravel soils offered the benefit of being well drained while absorbing and radiating heat to the vines, aiding ripening. Clay and limestone based soils are often cooler, allowing less heat to reach the vines, delaying ripening. In regions where the climate is warmer, there is more emphasis on soil that is less fertile, which promotes less vigor in the vine which can keep yields low.^[2] In the Napa Valley wine regions of Oakville and Rutherford, the soil is more alluvial and dusty. Rutherford Cabernet Sauvignon has been often quoted as giving a sense of terroir with a taste of "Rutherford dust".^[7] In the South Australian wine region of Coonawarra, Cabernet Sauvignon has produced vastly different results from grapes vines planted in the region's terra rosa soil-so much so that the red soil is considered the "boundary" of the wine region, with some controversy from wine growers with Cabernet Sauvignon planted on red soil.^[8]

In addition to ripeness levels, the harvest yields can also have a strong influence in the resulting quality and flavors of Cabernet Sauvignon wine. The vine itself is prone to vigorous yields, particularly when planted on the vigorous SO4 rootstock. Excessive yields can result in less concentrated and flavorful wine with flavors more on the green or herbaceous side. In the 1970s, a particular clone of Cabernet Sauvignon that was engineered to be virus free was noted for its very high yields-causing many quality conscious producers to replant their vineyards in the late 20th century with different clonal varieties. To reduce yields, producers can plant the vines on less vigorous rootstock and also practice green harvesting with aggressive pruning of grape clusters soon after veraison.^[2]

In general, Cabernet Sauvignon has good resistance to most grape diseases, powdery mildew being the most noted exception. It is, however, susceptible to the vine diseases Eutypella scoparia and excoriose.^[1]

The "green bell pepper" flavor

There are a couple of noted Cabernet Sauvignon flavors that are intimately tied to viticultural and climate influences. The most widely recognized is the herbaceous or green bell pepper flavor caused by pyrazines, which are more prevalent in under-ripened grapes. Pyrazine compounds are present in all Cabernet Sauvignon grapes and are gradually destroyed by sunlight as the grape continues to ripen. To the human palate this compound is detectable in wines with pyrazine levels as low as 2 nanograms (ng) per liter. At the time of veraison, when the grapes first start to fully ripen, there is the equivalent pyrazine level of 30 ng/l. In cooler climates, it is difficult to get Cabernet Sauvignon grapes to ripen fully to the point where pyrazine is not detected. The green bell pepper flavor is not considered a wine fault but it may not be desirable to all consumers' tastes. The California wine region of Monterey was noted in the late 20th century for its very vegetal Cabernet Sauvignon with pronounced green pepper flavor, earning the nickname of "Monterey veggies". In addition to its cool climate, Monterey is also prone to being very windy, which can have the effect of shutting down the grape vines and further inhibiting ripeness.^[2]

Two other well known Cabernet Sauvignon flavors are mint and eucalyptus. Mint flavors are often associated with wine regions that are warm enough to have low pyrazine levels but are still generally cool, such as Australia's Coonawarra region and some areas of Washington State. There is some belief that soil could also be a contributor to the minty notes, since the flavor also appears in some wines from the Pauillac region but not from similar climate of Margaux. Resinous Eucalyptus flavors tend to appear in regions that are habitats for the eucalyptus tree, such as California's Napa and Sonoma valleys and parts of Australia, but there has been no evidence to conclusively prove a direct link between proximity of eucalyptus trees and the presence of that flavor in the wine.^[2]

Winemaking

During the maceration period, color, flavor and tannins are extracted from the skins. The addition of stems and seeds will increase the tannic content of the wine.

In many aspects, Cabernet Sauvignon can reflect the desires and personality of the winemaker while still presenting familiar flavors that express the typical character of the variety. The most pronounced effects are from the use of oak during production. Typically the first winemaking decision is whether or not to produce a varietal or blended wine. The "Bordeaux blend" of Cabernet Sauvignon, Merlot and Cabernet franc, with potentially some Malbec, Petit Verdot or Carménère, is the classic example of blended Cabernet Sauvignon, emulated in the United States with wines produced under the "Meritage" designation. But Cabernet Sauvignon can be blended with a variety of grapes such as Shiraz, Tempranillo and Sangiovese.^[2] The decision to blend is then followed by the decision of when to do the blending— before, during or after fermentation. Due to the different fermentation styles of the grapes, many producers will ferment and age each grape variety separately and blend the wine shortly before bottling.^[9]

The Cabernet Sauvignon grape itself is very small, with a thick skin, creating a high 1:12 ratio of seed (pip) to fruit (pulp).^[10] From these elements the high proportions of phenols and tannins can have a stark influence on the structure and flavor of the wine— especially if the must is subjected to long periods of maceration (skin contact) before fermentation. In Bordeaux, the maceration period was traditionally three weeks, which gave the winemaking staff enough time to close down the estate after harvest to take a hunting holiday. The results of these long maceration periods are very tannic and flavorful wines that require years of aging. Wine producers that wish to make a wine more approachable within a couple of years will drastically reduce the maceration time to as a little as a few days. Following maceration, the Cabernet must can be fermented at high temperatures up to 30 °C (86 °F). The temperature of fermentation will play a role in the result, with deeper colors and more flavor components being extracted at higher temperatures while more fruit flavors are maintained at lower temperature. In Australia there has been experimentation with carbonic maceration to make softer, fruity Cabernet Sauvignon wines.^[2]

The tannic nature of Cabernet Sauvignon is an important winemaking consideration. As the must is exposed to prolonged periods of maceration, more tannins are extracted from the skin and will be present in the resulting wine. If winemakers choose not to shorten the period of maceration, in favor of maximizing color and flavor concentrations, there are some methods that they can use to soften tannin levels. A common methods is oak aging, which exposes the wine to gradual levels of oxidation that can mellow the harsh grape tannins as well as introduce softer "wood tannins". The choice of fining agents can also reduce tannins with gelatin and egg whites being positively-charged proteins that are naturally attracted to the negatively-charged tannin molecules. These fining agents will bond with some of the tannins and be removed from the wine during filtration. One additional method is micro-oxygenation which mimics some of the gradual aeration that occurs with barrel aging, with the limited exposure to oxygen aiding in the polymerization of the tannins into larger molecules, which are perceived on the palate as being softer.^[3]

Affinity for oak

Large oak barrels, like these used in Tuscany bring less wine in contact with the wood and therefore leave the resulting wine with less oak influence.

One of the most noted traits of Cabernet Sauvignon is its affinity for oak, either during fermentation or in barrel aging. In addition to having a softening effect on the grape's naturally high tannins, the unique wood flavors of vanilla and spice complement the natural grape flavors of black currant and tobacco. The particular success of Cabernet-based Bordeaux blends in the 225 liter (59 gallon) barrique were a significant influence in making that barrel size one of the most popular worldwide. In winemaking, the decision for the degree of oak influence (as well as which type of oak) will have a strong impact on the resulting wine. American oak, particularly from new barrels, will impart stronger oak flavors that are less subtle than those imparted by French oak. Even within the American oak family, the location of the oak source will also play a role with oak from the state of Oregon having more pronounced influence on Cabernet Sauvignon than oak from Missouri, Pennsylvania and Virginia. Winemakers will often use a variety of oak barrels from different locations and of different ages and blend the wine as if they were blending different grape varieties.^[2]

Winemakers can also control the influence of oak by using alternatives to the standard barrique barrels. Larger barrels will have a smaller wood-to-wine ratio and therefore less pronounced oak flavors. Winemakers in Italy and Portugal will sometimes use barrels made from other wood types such as chestnut and redwood. Another method that winemakers will consider tea bagging with oak chips or adding oak planks to the wines while fermenting or aging it in stainless steel tanks. While these methods are less costly than oak barrels, they create more pronounced oak flavors, which tend not to mellow or integrate with the rest of the wine's components; nor do they provide the gradual oxidation benefit of barrel aging.^[3]

Wine regions

Bordeaux

Armand d'Armailhac of Château d'Armailhac (bottle picture) and Baron Hector de Brane of Château Mouton were important figures in the establishment of Cabernet Sauvignon in Bordeaux.

The Bordeaux wine region is intimately connected with Cabernet Sauvignon, even though wine is rarely made without the blended component of other grape varieties. It is the likely "birthplace" of the vine, and producers across the globe have invested heavily in trying to reproduce the structure and complexity of Bordeaux wines. While the "Bordeaux blend" of Cabernet Sauvignon, Cabernet franc and Merlot created the earliest examples of acclaimed Cabernet Sauvignon wine, Cabernet Sauvignon was first blended in Bordeaux with Syrah, a pairing that is widely seen in Australia and some vin de pays wines from the Languedoc. The decision to first start blending Cabernet Sauvignon was partly derived from financial necessity. The sometime temperamental and unpredictable climate of Bordeaux during the "Little Ice Age" did not guarantee a successful harvest every year; producers had to insure themselves against the risk of losing an entire vintage by planting a variety of grapes. Over time it was discovered that the unique characteristics of each grape variety can complement each other and enhance the overall quality of wine. As a base, or backbone of the wine, Cabernet Sauvignon added structure, acidity, tannins and aging potential. By itself, particularly when harvested at less than ideal ripeness, its can lack a sense of fruit or "fleshiness" on the palate which can be compensated from by adding the rounder flavors of Merlot. Cabernet franc can add additional aromas to the bouquet as well as more fruitiness. In the lighter soils of the Margaux region, Cabernet-based wines can lack color, which can be achieved by blending in Petit Verdot. Malbec, used today mostly in Fronsac, can add additional fruit and floral aromas.^[2]

DNA evidence has shown Cabernet Sauvignon is the result of the crossing of two other Bordeaux grape varieties— Cabernet franc and Sauvignon blanc— which has led grapevine historians, or ampelographers, to believe that the grape originated in Bordeaux. Early records indicate that the grape was a popular planting in the Médoc region during the 18th century. The loose berry clusters and thick skins of the grape provided a good resistance to rot in the sometimes wet maritime climate of Bordeaux. The grape continued to grow in popularity till the Powdery mildew epidemic of 1852 exposed Cabernet Sauvignon's sensitivity to that grape disease. With vineyards severely ravaged or lost, many Bordeaux wine growers turned to Merlot, increasing its plantings to where it soon became the most widely-planted grape in Bordeaux. As the region's winemakers started to better understand the area's terroir and how the different grape varieties performed in different region, Cabernet Sauvignon increased in plantings all along the Left Bank region of the Gironde river in the Médoc as well as Graves region, where it became the dominant variety in the wine blends. In the Right bank regions of Saint-Émilion and Pomerol, Cabernet is a distant third in plantings behind Merlot & Cabernet franc.^[2]

In the wine regions of the Left Bank, the Cabernet influence of the wine has shown unique characteristics in the different regions. In Saint-Estèphe and Pessac-Léognan, the grape develops more mineral flavors. Aromas or violets are a characteristic of Margaux. Pauillac is noted by a strong lead pencil scent and Saint-Julien by cedar and cigar boxes. The Cabernet wines of the Moulis are characterized by their soft tannins and rich fruit flavors while the southern Graves region is characterized by strong black currant flavors, though in less intense wines over all.^[2] The percentage of Cabernet Sauvignon used in the blend will depend on terroir and the winemakers styles as well as the vintage. The First Growth estates of Château Mouton Rothschild and Château Latour are noted for regularly producing wines with some of the highest percentage of Cabernet— often around 75%.^[1]

A common factor affecting the flavors of Bordeaux wines is the harvest yields of Cabernet Sauvignon. Throughout Bordeaux there is a legal maximum permitted yield of 50 hectoliters (hl) per hectare (ha). With the aid of global warming and vigorous rootstocks, many Bordeaux vineyards can easily surpass 60 hl/ha, with some estates taking advantage of the legal loophole of plafond limite de classement ("ceiling limit classification") that permits higher yields during "exceptional" years. This has had an adverse affect on the quality of production from some producers who regularly use grapes harvested at excessive yields. In recent years there has been more of an emphasis on keeping yields low, particularly for an estate's Grand vin.^[2]

Other French regions

The Bordeaux wine region accounts for more than 60% of the Cabernet Sauvignon grown in France. Outside of Bordeaux, Cabernet Sauvignon is found in varying quantities throughout Le Midi and in the Loire Valley. In general, Cabernet Sauvignon wines are lighter and less structured, drinkable much earlier than Bordeaux wine. In the southwest French appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOCs) of Bergerac and Buzet it is used to make rosé wine. In some regions it is used to add flavor and structure to Carignan while it is blended with Négrette in Gaillac and Fronton as well as Tannat in Madiran. In Provence, the grape had some presence in the region in the mid 19th century, when viticulturist Jules Guyot recommended it as a blending partner with Syrah. In recent years, several Midi wine estates, such as Mas de Daumas Gassac have received international acclaim for their Cabernet Sauvignon blended in Hérault, with Rhône grapes like Syrah. It is often made as a single varietal in the vin de pays of the Languedoc. The influence of Australian flying winemakers has been considerable in how Cabernet Sauvignon is treated by some Languedoc wine estates, with some producers making wines that can seem like they are from the New World. Overall, the grape has not exerted it dominance of the region, generally considered less ideally situated to the dry climate than Syrah. The Languedoc producers who give serious consideration to Cabernet Sauvignon, generally rely on irrigation to compensate for the climate.^[1]

Italy

In the 1970s, Italian winemakers started to blend Cabernet Sauvignon with Sangiovese (pictured) to create wines known as "Super Tuscans".

Cabernet Sauvignon has a long history in Italian wines, being first introduced to the Piedmont region in 1820. In the mid-1970s, the grape earned notoriety and controversy as a component in the so-called "Super Tuscan" wines of Tuscany. Today the grape is permitted in several Denominazioni di origine controllata (DOCs) and is used in many Indicazione Geografica Tipica (IGT) wines that are made outside DOC perimeters in certain regions. For most of its history the grape has been viewed with suspicion as a "foreign influence" that distracts from the native grape varieties. After decades of experimentation, the general view of Cabernet Sauvignon has improved as more winemakers find ways to complement their native grape varieties with Cabernet as a blending component.^[2]

In Piedmont, the grape was sometimes used as an "illegal" blending partner with Nebbiolo for DOC classified Barolo with the intention of adding color and more fruit flavors. In the DOCs of Langhe and Monferrato, Cabernet is a permitted blending grape with Nebbiolo as well as Barbera. Wines that are composed of all three grape varieties are often subjected to consider oak treatment to add a sense of sweet spiciness to compensate for the high tannins of Cabernet Sauvignon and Nebbiolo as well as the high acidity of Barbera. There are varietal styles of Cabernet Sauvignon produce in Piedmont with qualities varying depending on the location. In other regions of northern Italy, such as Lombardy, Emilia-Romagna and Friuli-Venezia Giulia, the grape is often blended with Merlot to produce Bordeaux style blends. In the Veneto region, Cabernet Sauvignon is sometimes blended with the main grapes of Valpolicella-Corvina, Molinara and Rondinella. In southern Italy, the grape is mostly used as a blending component with local varieties-such as Carignan in Sardinia, Nero d'Avola in Sicily, Aglianico in Campania and Gaglioppo in Calabria.^[2]

Cabernet Sauvignon has had a controversial history in Tuscan wine, particularly for its role in the arrivals of "Super Tuscan" in the mid 1970s. The origin of Super Tuscans is rooted in the restrictive DOC practices of the Chianti zone prior to the 1990s. During this time Chianti could be composed of no more than 70% Sangiovese and had to include at least 10% of one of the local white wine grapes. Many Tuscan wine producers thought they could produce a better quality wine if they were not hindered by the DOC regulations, particularly if they had the freedom to use Cabernet Sauvignon in the blend and not require to use white grape varieties. The marchese Piero Antinori was one of the first to create a "Chianti-style" wine that ignored the DOC regulations, releasing a 1971 Sangiovese-Cabernet Sauvignon blend known as Tignanello in 1978. Other producers followed suit and soon the prices for these Super Tuscans were consistently beating the prices of some of most well known Chianti.^[11] Other Tuscan wine regions followed suit, blending Cabernet Sauvignon with Sangiovese and even making varietal versions of the grape. Gradually the DOC system caught on and began allowing more regions to use the grape in their DOC designated wines. Cabernet Sauvignon in Tuscany is characterized by ripe black cherry flavors that can give a perception of sweetness as well as strong notes of black currant. The wines typically reach an alcohol level around 14% but can still maintain notable levels of acidity. When blended with Sangiovese in significant quantities, Cabernet Sauvignon can dominate the blend with most Tuscan producers aiming to find a particular balance that suits their desired style.^[2]

Other Old World producers

In Spain, Cabernet Sauvignon is often blended with Tempranillo.(pictured)

The introduction of Cabernet Sauvignon in Spanish wine occurred in the Rioja region when the Marqués de Riscal planted cuttings from Bordeaux. By 2004, it was the sixth most widely planted red wine grape in Spain.^[1] Today it is found in some quantities in every Spanish wine region, though it is not permitted in every Denominación de Origen (DO) designated region. In those areas, wines with Cabernet Sauvignon are relegated to less distinguished designations such as Vino de la Tierra or Vino de Mesa.^[2] The grape is most prominent in the Catalan wine region of Penedès, where its use was revived by the estates of Bodegas Torres and Jean León. There the grape is often blended with Tempranillo. It is also primarily a blending grape in the Ribera del Duero, but producers in Navarra have found some international acclaim for their varietal wines.^[3]

In the United Kingdom, English wine producers have experimented with growing the variety in plastic tunnels which can create a greenhouse effect and protect the grapes from the less than ideal climate of the wine region. While the grape is permitted to be planted in some German wine regions (such as the Mosel), the vineyard sites best suited for ripening Cabernet are generally already occupied with Riesling; many producers are ill-inclined to uproot the popular German variety in favor of Cabernet Sauvignon. In the 1980s, inexpensive Bulgarian Cabernet Sauvignon was highly touted for its value and helped to establish that country's wine industry and garner it more international presence in the wine market. The grape is performing a similar function for many countries in Eastern Europe, including Czech Republic, Georgia, Hungary, Moldova, Romania, Russia, Slovenia, and Ukraine. It can be in the eastern Mediterranean wine regions of Cyprus, Greece, Israel and Lebanon.^[2] In Russia there is the similarly named, but otherwise unrelated hybrid grape, Cabernet Severny that has begun to supplant Cabernet Sauvignon plantings due to its more consistent performance in that region's cooler climate.^[1]

California

A bottle of Stag's Leap Cask 23 Californian Cabernet Sauvignon.

In California, Cabernet Sauvignon has developed its characteristic style and reputation, recognizable in the world's market. Production and plantings of the grape in California are similar in quantity to those of Bordeaux.^[1] The 1976 Judgment of Paris wine tasting event helped to catapult Californian Cabernet Sauvignons onto the international stage when Stag's Leap Wine Cellars' 1973 Stags Leap District Cabernet Sauvignon beat out classified Bordeaux estates like Château Mouton Rothschild, Château Montrose, Château Haut-Brion and Château Léoville-Las Cases in a blind tasting conducted by French wine experts.^[3] In the 1980s, a new epidemic of phylloxera hit California, devastating many vineyards, which needed replanting. There was some speculation that ravaged Cabernet vineyards would be replanted with other varietals (such as those emerging from the Rhone Rangers movement) but in fact California plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon doubled between 1988 and 1998; many wine regions— such as Napa Valley north of Yountville and Sonoma's Alexander Valley— were almost completely dominated by the grape varieties. It also started to gain a foothold in Dry Creek Valley, Sonoma Mountain and Mendocino County.^[2] Cabernet from Sonoma County has shown a tendency to feature anise and black olive notes while Napa County Cabernets are characterized by their strong black fruit flavors.^[3]

In California, the main stylistic difference in Cabernet Sauvignon is between hillside/mountain vineyards and those on flatter terrain like valley floors or some areas of the Central Valley. In Napa, the hillside vineyards of Diamond Mountain District, Howell Mountain, Mt. Veeder, Spring Mountain District have thinner, less fertile soils which produces smaller berries with more intense flavors, reminiscent of Bordeaux wines that require years of aging to mature. The yields are also much lower, typically in the range of 1-2 tons per acre in contrast to the 4-8 tons that can be produced in the more fertile valley floors.^[2] Wines produced from mountainside vineyards tend to be characterized by deep inky colors and strong berry aromas. Throughout California there are many wine regions that have the potential to grow Cabernet Sauvignon to full ripeness and produce fruity, full-bodied wines with alcohol levels regularly above the Bordeaux average of 12-13% — often in excess of 14%.^[3]

Old vine Cabernet Sauvignon at Chateau Montelena in Napa Valley. As the grapes mature they will darken to a bluish purple hue.

The use of oak in California Cabernet has a long history, with many producers favoring the use of new oak barrels heavily composed of American oak. After the early 1980s' unsuccessful trend to create more "food friendly" wines, with less ripeness and less oak influence, winemakers' focus shifted back to oak influence, but producers were more inclined to limit and lighten the use of oak barrels, with many turning to French oak or a combination of new and older oak barrels.^[2]

Other American wine regions

After Merlot, Cabernet Sauvignon is the second most widely planted grape variety in Washington State. It is generally found in the warmer sites of the Columbia Valley. The vines are choice plantings for growers due to their hardy vine stalks and resistance to the cold winter frost that is commonplace in Eastern Washington. Washington Cabernet Sauvignon is characterized by its fruitiness and easy drinking styles that are not overly tannic.^[2] Recent Washington American Viticultural Areas (AVAs) that have seen some success with their Cabernet Sauvignons include Red Mountain, Walla Walla Valley and parts of the Yakima Valley AVA near the Tri-Cities region.^[3]

In Oregon there are small quantities of Cabernet Sauvignon planted in the warmer southern regions of the Umpqua and Rogue Valleys.^[2] It has also started to develop a presence in the Arizona, New York, Texas and Virginia wine industries-particularly in the Texas Hill Country and North Fork of Long Island AVAs. Throughout the United States, Cabernet Sauvignon is made in both varietal and blended styles. Under the American system, varietal Cabernet Sauvignon can include up to 25% other grapes.^[3]

South America

Cabernet Sauvignon is grown in nearly every South American country including Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, Peru and Uruguay. In Chile, the wines were historically limited by the excessively high yields that were commonplace throughout the country. As producers begun to concentrate on limiting yields, regional differences began to emerge that distinguished Chilean Cabernets. For vineyard plantings along flat river valleys, the climate of the region is the most important consideration; as plantings move to higher elevations and along hillsides, soil type is a greater concern. The wines of the Aconcagua region are noted for their ripe fruit but closed, tight structure that needs some time in the bottle to develop. In the Maipo Valley, Cabernet Sauvignon wines are characterized by their pervasive black currant fruit and an earthy, dusty note. In warmer regions, such as the Colchagua Province and around Curicó, the grapes ripen more fully; they produce wines with rich fruit flavors that can be perceived as sweet due to the ripeness of the fruit. The acidity levels of these wines will be lower and the tannins will also be softer, making the wines more approachable at a younger age.^[2]

In Argentina, Cabernet Sauvignon lags behind Malbec as the country's main red grape but its numbers are growing. The varietal versions often have lighter fruit flavors and are meant to be consumed young. Premium examples are often blended with Malbec and produce full, tannic wines with leather and tobacco notes.^[2] In recent years, there have been increased plantings of Cabernet Sauvignon in the Uco Valley of the Mendoza Province; the wines coming from vineyards planted at higher altitudes garner some international attention.^[3]

Australia

Unlike other clay-based soils, the free-draining terra rosa of Australia's Coonawarra region contributes to a unique style of Cabernet Sauvignon.

In the 1970s, the Coonawarra region first brought international attention to Australian Cabernet Sauvignons with intense fruit flavors and subtle minty notes. The Margaret River region soon followed with wines that were tightly structured with pronounced black fruit notes. In the 1980s, Australia followed California's contemporary trend in producing lighter, more "food friendly" wines with alcohol levels around 11-12% percent; by the early 1990s, the styles changed again to focus on balance and riper fruit flavors. Today Cabernet Sauvignon is the second most widely planted red wine grape in Australia, following Shiraz with which it is often blended. It can be found in several wine regions with many large producers using grapes from several states. Notable regional differences characterize Australian Cabernet Sauvignon: in addition to the wine styles of Coonawarra and Margaret River, the Barossa Valley produces big, full bodied wines while the nearby, cooler Clare Valley produces wines with more concentrated fruit, and wines of the Victorian wine region of the Yarra Valley are noted for their balance in acidity, tannins and fruit flavors.^[2]

Other New World producers

Since the end of apartheid, the South African wine industry has been working to reestablish itself in the world's wine markets with many regions actively promoting their Cabernet Sauvignon. Today it is the most widely planted red wine grape in South Africa. It is produced in both varietal and blended styles; some producers favor a Bordeaux blend, while others follow the Australian example of blending with Syrah.^[1] Early examples of South African Cabernet Sauvignon were produced by grapes planted in vineyard locations that were cooler than ideal, creating very herbaceous wines with the distinctive "green bell pepper" notes. In the mid 1990s, there was more emphasis on harvesting at fuller ripeness, and new clones were introduced that produced riper, sweeter fruit. As the vines age, and better vineyards locations are identified, regional styles are starting to emerge among South African Cabernet Sauvignons: the Stellenbosch region is noted for heavy, full bodied wines while Constantia's wines are characterized by their herbal and minty flavors.^[2]

In New Zealand, climate has been a challenge in finding wine regions suitable for producing Cabernet Sauvignon. Most of the industry focus has centered on the North Island. The Hawke's Bay region was the first to make a significant effort in producing Cabernet Sauvignon but the cool climate of the region, coupled with the high yields and fertile alluvial soils, produced wines that were still marked with aggressive green and vegetal flavors. Added focus on canopy management, which gives the grapes more sunlight to ripen by removing excess foliage, and low vigor rootstock and pruning combine to achieve lower yields and have started to produce better results. The grape is sometimes blended with Merlot to help compensate for climate and terroir. Other regions in New Zealand have sprung up with a renewed focus on producing distinctive New Zealand Cabernet Sauvignon:^[2] The Gimblett Road and Havelock North regions of Hawke's Bay, with their warm gravel soils, have started to achieve notice as well as Waiheke Island near Auckland.^[3] Overall the grape lags far behind Pinot noir in New Zealand's red wine grape plantings.^[1]

Popularity and criticism

In the past century, Cabernet Sauvignon has enjoyed a swell of popularity as one of the noble grapes in the world of wine. Built partially on its historical success in Bordeaux as well as New World wine regions like California and Australia, planting the grape is considered a solid choice in any wine region that is warm enough to cultivate it. Among consumers Cabernet has become a familiar wine which has aided in its accessibility and appeal even from obscure wine regions and producers. In the 1980s, the Bulgarian wine industry was largely driven and introduced to the international wine market by the success of its Cabernet Sauvignon wines. The widespread popularity of Bordeaux has contributed to criticism of the grape variety for its role as a "colonizer" grape, being planted in new and emerging wine regions at the expense of focus on the unique local grape varieties. Some regions, such as Portugal with its abundance of native grape varieties, have largely ignored Cabernet Sauvignon as it seeks to rejuvenate its wine industry beyond Port production.^[2]

Wine styles

New World Cabernet Sauvignons, such as this one from California's Alexander Valley, often have more pronounced, ripe fruit flavors than Old World wines from regions like Bordeaux.

The style of Cabernet Sauvignon is strongly influenced by the ripeness of the grapes at harvest. When more on the unripe side, the grapes are high in pyrazines and will exhibit pronounced green bell peppers and vegetal flavors. When harvested overripe the wines can taste jammy and may have aromas of stewed black currants. Some winemakers choose to harvest their grapes at different ripeness levels in order to incorporate these different elements and potentially add some layer of complexity to the wine. When Cabernet Sauvignon is young, the wines typically exhibit strong fruit flavors of black cherries and plum. The aroma of black currants is one of the most distinctive and characteristic element of Cabernet Sauvignon that is present in virtually every style of the wine across the globe. Styles from various regions and producers may also have aromas of eucalyptus, mint and tobacco. As the wines age they can sometimes develop aromas associated with cedar, cigar boxes and pencil shavings. In general New World examples have more pronounced fruity notes while Old World wines can be more austere with heightened earthy notes.^[2]

Ability to age

Pairing with food

Fatty red meats, such as lamb, pair well with Cabernet Sauvignon due to the ability of proteins and fats to negate some of the tannic qualities of the wine.

Cabernet Sauvignon is a very bold and assertive wine that has potential to overwhelm light and delicate dishes. The wine's high tannin content as well as the oak influences and high alcohol levels associated with many regional styles play important roles in influencing how well the wine matches with different foods. When Cabernet Sauvignon is young, all those elements are at their peak, but as the wine ages it mellows; possibilities for different food pairings open up. In most circumstances, matching the weight (alcohol level and body) of the wine to the heaviness of the food is an important consideration. Cabernet Sauvignons with high alcohol levels do not pair well with spicy foods due to hotness levels of the capsaicins present in spices like chili peppers being enhanced by the alcohol with the heat accentuating the bitterness of the tannins. Milder spices, such as black pepper, pair better due to their ability to minimize the perception of tannins—such as in the classic pairings of Cabernet Sauvignon with steak au poivre and pepper-crusted ahi tuna.^[3]

Fats and proteins reduce the perception of tannins on the palate. When Cabernet Sauvignon is paired with steak or dishes with a heavy butter cream sauce, the tannins are neutralized, allowing the fruits of the wine to be more noticeable. In contrast, starches such as pastas and rice will have little effect on tannins. The bitterness of the tannins can also be counterbalanced by the use of bitter foods, such as radicchio and endive, or with cooking methods that involve charring like grilling. As the wine ages and the tannins lessen, more subtle and less bitter dishes will pair better with Cabernet Sauvignon. The oak influences of the wine can be matched with cooking methods that have similar influences on the food-such as grilling, smoking and plank roasting. Dishes that include oak-influenced flavors and aromas normally found in Cabernet Sauvignon—such as dill weed, brown sugar, nutmeg and vanilla—can also pair well.^[3]

The different styles of Cabernet Sauvignon from different regions can also influence how well the wine matches up with certain foods. Old World wines, such as Bordeaux, have earthier influences and will pair better with mushrooms. Wines from cooler climates that have noticeable vegetal notes can be balanced with vegetables and greens. New World wines, with bolder fruit flavors that may even be perceived as sweet, will pair well with bolder dishes that have lots of different flavor influences. While Cabernet Sauvignon has the potential to pair well with bitter dark chocolate, it will not pair well with sweeter styles such as milk chocolate. The wine can typically pair well with a variety of cheeses, such as Cheddar, mozzarella and Brie, but full flavored or blue cheeses will typically compete too much with the flavors of Cabernet Sauvignon to be a complementary pairing.^[3]

Health Benefits

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k J. Robinson (ed) "The Oxford Companion to Wine" Third Edition pg 119-121 Oxford University Press 2006 ISBN 0-19-860990-6
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ ^o ^p ^q ^r ^s ^t ^u ^v ^w ^x ^y ^z ^aa ^ab ^ac ^ad ^ae ^af ^ag ^ah ^ai Oz Clarke Encyclopedia of Grapes pg 47-56 Harcourt Books 2001 ISBN 0-15-100714-4
^ ^a ^b ^c ^d ^e ^f ^g ^h ⁱ ^j ^k ^l ^m ⁿ E. Goldstein "Perfect Pairings" pg 134-139 University of California Press 2006 ISBN 978-0-520-24377-4
^ L. Alley. "New French Wine Grape Arrives in US Market, The Wine Spectator, September 30, 2007, p. 17
^ Cleggett wines: history and pictures of the gris and white mutants; Transcript of ABC show about bronze and white mutants
^ Walker AR, Lee E, Robinson SP (2006), "Two new grape cultivars, bud sports of Cabernet Sauvignon bearing pale-coloured berries, are the result of deletion of two regulatory genes of the berry colour locus." Plant Mol Biol. 2006 Nov;62(4-5):623-35.
^ Rutherford Dust Society "About us" Accessed: February 22nd, 2008
^ T. Stevenson "The Sotheby's Wine Encyclopedia" pg 578-581 Dorling Kindersley 2005 ISBN 0-7566-1324-8
^ D. Mouer "Meritage: What's in a Name" Wine Maker Magazine, August 2004
^ For contrast, Sémillon has a 1:25 pip to pulp ratio.
^ M. Ewing-Mulligan & E. McCarthy Italian Wines for Dummies pg 155 & 167-169 Hungry Minds 2001 ISBN 0-7645-5355-0
^ J. Gaffney "Drinking Cabernet May Cut Risk of Alzheimer's, Study Finds", Wine Spectator Magazine, December 31, 2006, pg 17
^ Marambaud P, Zhao H, Davies P. (2005-11-11). "Resveratrol promotes clearance of Alzheimer's disease amyloid-beta peptides". National Institute of Health. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/entrez/query.fcgi?db=pubmed&cmd=Retrieve&dopt=AbstractPlus&list_uids=16162502&query_hl=7&itool=pubmed_docsum.
^ Fantinelli JC, Mosca SM. "Cardioprotective effects of a non-alcoholic extract of red wine during ischaemia and reperfusion in spontaneously hypertensive rats." Clin Exp. Pharmacol. Physiol. 34(3) (March 2007:166-69)

Sémillon

2011-05-08T05:36:00.000-07:00

Sémillon is a golden-skinned grape used to make dry and sweet white wines, most notably in France and Australia.

The origin of the Sémillon grape is hard to determine. It is known that it first arrived in Australia in the early 19th century and by the 1820s the grape covered over 90 percent of South Africa's vineyards, where it was known as Wyndruif, meaning "wine grape".^[1] It was once considered to be the most planted grape in the world, although this is no longer the case. In the 1950s, Chile's vineyards were made up of over 75% Sémillon. Today, it accounts for just 1% of South African Cape vines.^[1]

Viticulture

Sémillon, which is relatively easy to cultivate,^[1] consistently produces six to eight tons of grapes per acre from its vigorous vines.^[2] It is fairly resistant to disease, except for rot. The grape ripens early, when, in warmer climates, it acquires a pinkish hue.^[3] Since the grape has a thin skin, there is also a risk of sunburn in hotter climates; it is best suited to areas with sunny days and cool nights.
The Sémillon grape is rather heavy, with low acidity and an almost oily texture. It has a high yield and wines based on it can age a long time. Along with Sauvignon Blanc and Muscadelle, Sémillon is one of only three approved white wine varieties in the Bordeaux region. The grape is also key to the production of sweet wines such as Sauternes.

Regional production

Semillon showing signs of developing noble rot in the Barsac region of Bordeaux.

Sémillon is the major white grape in the Bordeaux wine regions and Côtes de Gascogne. Whereas today Australia's major white varieties are Chardonnay and Sauvignon blanc, early in the country's viticultural development it was Sémillon, then mislabeled as Riesling.

France

In France, the Sémillon grape is grown mostly in Bordeaux where it is blended with Sauvignon blanc and Muscadelle. When dry, it is referred to as Bordeaux blanc and is permitted to be made in the appellations of Pessac-Léognan, Graves, Entre-deux-mers and other less-renowned regions. In this form, Sémillon is generally a minor constituent in the blend. However, when used to make the sweet white wines of Bordeaux (such as those from Sauternes, Barsac and Cérons) it is often the dominant variety.^[1] In such wines the vine is exposed to the "noble rot" of Botrytis cinerea which consumes the water content of the fruit, concentrating the sugar present in its pulp. When attacked by Botrytis cinerea, the grapes shrivel and the acid and sugar levels are intensified.^[4]

Due to the declining popularity of the grape variety, fewer clones are cultivated in nurseries causing producers to project a future shortage of quality wine. In 2008 17 Bordeaux wine producers, including Château d'Yquem, Château Olivier, Château Suduiraut and Château La Tour Blanche, formed an association to grow their own clones.^[5]

Australia

Semillon vines growing in Gisborne, New Zealand

Sémillon is widely grown in Australia, particularly in the Hunter Valley north of Sydney, where for a long time it was known as "Hunter River Riesling". Four styles of Sémillon-based wines made there: a commercial style, often blended with Chardonnay or Sauvignon Blanc; a sweet style, after that of Sauternes; a complex, minerally, early picked style which has great longevity; and an equally high quality,dry style, which can be released soon after vintage, as a vat or bottle aged example. Hunter Valley Sémillon is never matured in oak. The latter two styles were pioneered by Lindemans, Tulloch, McWilliam's Elizabeth, Drayton's and Tyrrell's, and are considered unique to Australia. Most examples of these bottle-aged Hunter Semillons exhibit a buttercup-yellow colour, burnt toast or honey characteristics on the nose and excellent complex flavours on the palate, with a long finish and soft acid. Young Hunter Valley semillon is almost always a dry wine, usually exhibiting citrus flavours of lemon, lime or green apple. Cooler year Hunter Semillons seem to be the most highly sought after, with some of the 1974 and 1977 vintages still drinking well. The newer, fruit accentuated styles are championed by the likes of Iain Riggs at Brokenwood and The Rothbury Estate. Sémillon is also finding favour with Australian producers outside of the Hunter Valley in the Barossa Valley and Margaret River regions. The Adelaide Hills is becoming a flourishing region for Semillon with the cooler climate producing some wines of great complexity. Vineyards such as Amadio and Paracombe producing some premium blends of the classical style.

Other regions

Outside of these regions, however, Sémillon is unpopular and often criticised for lack of complexity and intensity. As such, plantings have decreased over the last century. As referenced above, the grape can still be found in South Africa and Chile. The latter is reputed to have the largest plantings of this grape,^[2] although the number of acres planted with Sémillon fluctuates often. California growers plant Sémillon primarily to blend it with Sauvignon blanc.^[2] There are some wineries in the Washington State who actively produce Sémillon for Ice Wine and Late Harvest wines. The grape is also planted in Argentina, and recently in New Zealand.

References

^ ^a ^b ^c ^d Oxford Companion to Wine. "semillon". http://www.winepros.com.au/jsp/cda/reference/oxford_entry.jsp?entry_id=2916.
^ ^a ^b ^c Professional friends of Wine Semillon
^ Uncork A short history of Semillon
^ Epicurious Wine Dictionary Sémillon
^ Anson, Jane, Decanter.com (April 8, 2008). "Bordeaux: Semillon shortage threatens future vintages". http://www.decanter.com/news/226273.html.

The Science of Wine: From Vine to Glass

2011-05-08T05:31:00.000-07:00

This essential and groundbreaking reference gives a comprehensive overview of one of the most fascinating, important, and controversial trends in the world of wine: the scientific and technological innovations that are now influencing how grapes are grown and how wine is made. Jamie Goode, a widely respected authority on wine science, details the key scientific developments relating to viticulture and enology, explains the practical application of science to techniques that are used around the world, and explores how these issues are affecting the quality, flavor, and perception of wine. The only complete resource available on the subject, The Science of Wine: From Vine to Glass engagingly discusses a wide range of topics including terroir, biodynamics, the production of "natural" or manipulation-free wines, the potential effect of climate change on grape growing, the health benefits of wine, and much more.

* Covers some of the most hotly debated issues including genetically modified grape vines, sulphur dioxide, the future of cork, and wine flavor chemistry
* More than 100 illustrations and photographs make even the most complex topics clear, straightforward, and easy to understand
* Engagingly written for a wide audience of students, winemakers, wine professionals, and general readers interested in the science of wine

"The Science of Wine does an outstanding job of integrating 'hard' science about wine with the emotional aspects that make wine appealing."--Patrick J. Mahaney, former senior Vice President for wine quality at Robert Mondavi Winery

"Jamie Goode is a rarity in the wine world: a trained scientist who can explain complicated subjects without dumbing them down or coming over like a pointy head. It also helps that he's a terrific writer with a real passion for his subject."--Tim Atkin MW, The Observer

Jamie Goode, a member of the UK Circle of Wine Writers and a former scientific editor, is wine writer for the Sunday Express, wine columnist with The Western Mail, and a regular contributor to Harpers, Decanter, and Wine International. In 2000 he established the consumer-oriented website www.wineanorak.com, one of the world's most visited wine sites. He is a finalist for the Louis Roederer Award for International Wine Writer 2005.

Red wine and the health benefits of resveratrol

2011-05-08T05:24:00.001-07:00

Learn why red wine is good for you and what resveratrol can do for you and your health, quite possibly we can slow the effects of aging.

Health Benefits of Red Wine video

2011-05-08T05:23:00.000-07:00

Christine Ansbacher explains the health benefits of red wine.

Resveratrol -- Drinking Red Wine and Health Benefits

2011-05-08T05:14:00.000-07:00

Is red wine better than white wine?
What is it about wine that is supposed to be good for us?

In this clip, DocShop.com breaks it down for you. We provide information about an ingredient called resveratrol, alcohol guidelines from the American Heart Association, and much more.

Red Wine - The Health Benefits

2011-05-08T05:11:00.000-07:00

The following is a transcript of a report by medical editor Marilyn Brooks that first aired Oct. 19, 2007, on WTAE Channel 4 Action News at 5 p.m.

http://youtu.be/1N7vgCzTPc0

Health Benefits of Red Wine

2011-05-08T05:08:00.000-07:00

People say red wine is good for your heart, and in this video we cover the health benefits of red wine and why it's good for you and also cover resveratrol.

Red Wine for Health

2011-05-08T05:05:00.000-07:00

Dr. Owen R. Thompson explains how alcohol can benefit the heart and cardiovascular system, by raising HDL cholesterol.

Wine Types & Selection Tips : Red Wine Health Benefits

2011-05-08T05:03:00.000-07:00

Red wine provides health benefits like providing vitamins and flavonoids from grape skins, as well as aiding blood circulation, but this is only true when drinking in moderation. Understand the health benefits that wine provides when consumed in moderation with ideas from a wine connoisseur in this free video on wines.

Expert: Gabriel Chisese
Bio: Gabriel Chisese and his brother Victor Chisese run Estate Wines in an upmarket area of North London.
Filmmaker: Kathy Stannard

Elixir of Life: Wine and Health

2011-05-08T04:59:00.000-07:00

Wine grapes are one of the major human food crops, and there is now overwhelming evidence that drinking wine in moderation is beneficial to human health. But why did only one particular species of Vitis become used for wine-making -- out of more than 30 existing species? The DNA sequence of a Pinot Noir variety of Vitis vinifera was published in 2007 and comparison with other varieties is underway. Will we soon be drinking genetically-engineered "designer" wines?

Francisco Ayala, University of California, Irvine

Coffee, Tea & Wine : Health Benefits of Green Tea

2011-05-08T04:55:00.000-07:00

The health benefits of green tea may include providing large amounts of antioxidants, fighting plaque, reducing the risk of stroke and helping with weight loss. Help fight cancer by drinking green tea regularly with insight from a wine and restaurant specialist in this free video on green tea.

Expert: Adrien Matthews
Contact: www.taystrestaurant.com
Bio: Adrien Matthews runs the wine program at Tayst Restaurant and Wine Bar in Nashville, Tenn.
Filmmaker: Dimitri LaBarge

Good Wine Guide

Book Giveaway - The Quarter-Acre Farm: How I Kept the Patio, Lost the Lawn, and Fed My Family for a Year

Here are a few ways to enter:

Capturing heat: Five earth-friendly cooking technologies and how to build them

Introduction to Psychology with Professor Paul Bloom - Open Yale Courses (20 free video online lectures + transcripts)

Syrah/Shiraz

The name Shiraz

Other legends

Rise to fame

Arrival in Australia

Modern history

Syrah wines

Taste and flavours

Syrah or Shiraz on labels

Syrah in different countries

France

Australia

South Africa

United States

Argentina

Chile

Durif

See also

References

Slovak wine

Grape varieties

Origin specification

Composition

References

Gary Vaynerchuk: Do what you love (Web 2.0 Expo)

Who is Gary Vaynerchuk ?

Wine Library TV

Crush It

Awards and honors

Bibliography

References

Gary Vaynerchuk's 101 Wines: Guaranteed to Inspire, Delight, and Bring Thunder to Your World

The Official Announcement by Gary:

Reviews of 101 Wines:

Gary Vaynerchuk's 101 Wines - official announcement of the book during episode 444 of Wine Library TV

The Official Announcement by Gary:

Pinot noir

History, mutants and clones

Crosses

Regions

Australia

Austria

Canada

UK

France

Germany

Italy

Moldova

New Zealand

Slovenia

Spain

Switzerland

United States

Recent popularity

See also

References

Food and Wine Pairing: A Sensory Experience

About the Author

Merlot

Viticulture

Major regions

France

Rest of Europe

United States

Other New World regions

Chile and Carménère

Mexico

Wines

White Merlot

Food pairing

See also

References

Cabernet Sauvignon

Offspring and White Cabernet

Viticulture